Enteral nutrition in septic shock: a call for a paradigm shift.

PURPOSE OF REVIEW: The purpose of this review is to identify contemporary evidence evaluating enteral nutrition in patients with septic shock, outline risk factors for enteral feeding intolerance (EFI), describe the conundrum of initiating enteral nutrition in patients with septic shock, appraise current EFI definitions, and identify bedside monitors for guiding enteral nutrition therapy. RECENT FINDINGS: The NUTRIREA-2 and NUTRIREA-3 trial results have better informed the dose of enteral nutrition in critically ill patients with circulatory shock. In both trials, patients with predominant septic shock randomized to receive early standard-dose nutrition had more gastrointestinal complications. Compared to other contemporary RCTs that included patients with circulatory shock, patients in the NUTRIREA-2 and NUTRIREA-3 trials had higher bowel ischemia rates, were sicker, and received full-dose enteral nutrition while receiving high baseline dose of vasopressor. These findings suggest severity of illness, vasopressor dose, and enteral nutrition dose impact outcomes. SUMMARY: The provision of early enteral nutrition preserves gut barrier functions; however, these benefits are counterbalanced by potential complications of introducing luminal nutrients into a hypo-perfused gut, including bowel ischemia. Findings from the NUTRIREA2 and NUTRIREA-3 trials substantiate a 'less is more' enteral nutrition dose strategy during the early acute phase of critical illness. In the absence of bedside tools to guide the initiation and advancement of enteral nutrition in patients with septic shock, the benefit of introducing enteral nutrition on preserving gut barrier function must be weighed against the risk of harm by considering dose of vasopressor, dose of enteral nutrition, and severity of illness.

The Effect of Vitamin C on Clinical Outcome in Critically Ill Patients: A Systematic Review With Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials.

OBJECTIVES: The effects of vitamin C administration on clinical outcome in critically ill patients remain controversial. DATA SOURCES: Online databases were searched up to October 1, 2018. STUDY SELECTION: We included randomized controlled trials on the use of vitamin C (any regimen) in adult critically ill patients versus placebo or no therapy. DATA EXTRACTION: Risk ratio for dichotomous outcome and standardized mean difference for continuous outcome with 95% CI were calculated using random-effects model meta-analysis. DATA SYNTHESIS: Forty-four randomized studies, 16 performed in ICU setting (2,857 patients) and 28 in cardiac surgery (3,598 patients), published between 1995 and 2018, were included in the analysis. In ICU patients, vitamin C administration was not associated with a difference in mortality (risk ratio, 0.90; 95% CI, 0.74-1.10; p = 0.31), acute kidney injury, ICU or hospital length of stay compared with control. In cardiac surgery, vitamin C was associated to a reduction in postoperative atrial fibrillation (risk ratio, 0.64; 95% CI, 0.52-0.78; p < 0.0001), ICU stay (standardized mean difference, -0.28 d; 95% CI, -0.43 to -0.13 d; p = 0.0003), and hospital stay (standardized mean difference, -0.30 d; 95% CI, -0.49 to -0.10 d; p = 0.002). Furthermore, no differences in postoperative mortality, acute kidney injury, stroke, and ventricular arrhythmia were found. CONCLUSIONS: In a mixed population of ICU patients, vitamin C administration is associated with no significant effect on survival, length of ICU or hospital stay. In cardiac surgery, beneficial effects on postoperative atrial fibrillation, ICU or hospital length of stay remain unclear. However, the quality and quantity of evidence is still insufficient to draw firm conclusions, not supporting neither discouraging the systematic administration of vitamin C in these populations. Vitamin C remains an attractive intervention for future investigations aimed to improve clinical outcome.

Blood Purification and Mortality in Sepsis and Septic Shock: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis of Randomized Trials.

BACKGROUND: Sepsis and septic shock are severe inflammatory conditions related to high morbidity and mortality. We performed a systematic review with meta-analysis of randomized trials to assess whether extracorporeal blood purification reduces mortality in this setting. METHODS: Electronic databases were searched for pertinent studies up to January 2019. We included randomized controlled trials on the use of hemoperfusion, hemofiltration without a renal replacement purpose, and plasmapheresis as a blood purification technique in comparison to conventional therapy in adult patients with sepsis and septic shock. The primary outcome was mortality at the longest follow-up available. We calculated relative risks and 95% CIs. The grading of recommendations assessment, development and evaluation methodology for the certainty of evidence was used. RESULTS: Thirty-seven trials with 2,499 patients were included in the meta-analysis. Hemoperfusion was associated with lower mortality compared to conventional therapy (relative risk = 0.88 [95% CI, 0.78 to 0.98], P = 0.02, very low certainty evidence). Low risk of bias trials on polymyxin B immobilized filter hemoperfusion showed no mortality difference versus control (relative risk = 1.14 [95% CI, 0.96 to 1.36], P = 0.12, moderate certainty evidence), while recent trials found an increased mortality (relative risk = 1.22 [95% CI, 1.03 to 1.45], P = 0.02, low certainty evidence); trials performed in the United States and Europe had no significant difference in mortality (relative risk = 1.13 [95% CI, 0.96 to 1.34], P = 0.15), while trials performed in Asia had a positive treatment effect (relative risk = 0.57 [95% CI, 0.47 to 0.69], P < 0.001). Hemofiltration (relative risk = 0.79 [95% CI, 0.63 to 1.00], P = 0.05, very low certainty evidence) and plasmapheresis (relative risk = 0.63 [95% CI, 0.42 to 0.96], P = 0.03, very low certainty evidence) were associated with a lower mortality. CONCLUSIONS: Very low-quality randomized evidence demonstrates that the use of hemoperfusion, hemofiltration, or plasmapheresis may reduce mortality in sepsis or septic shock. Existing evidence of moderate quality and certainty does not provide any support for a difference in mortality using polymyxin B hemoperfusion. Further high-quality randomized trials are needed before systematic implementation of these therapies in clinical practice.

Nutrition in Adult Cardiac Surgery: Preoperative Evaluation, Management in the Postoperative Period, and Clinical Implications for Outcomes.

The perioperative nutritional status of patients undergoing cardiac surgery influences outcomes; therefore nutritional support is essential for these patients. Owing to the lack of solid evidence, no protocols have been established for the nutritional management of this specific population, and most of the recommendations are based on other critically ill populations. In this review of the main studies performed in this population, the importance of preoperative evaluation of nutritional status, the management of nutritional support immediately after cardiac surgery, the influence of nutrition on outcomes, and the importance of nutrition after hospital discharge are discussed. In addition, the possible influence of glycemic control and pharmaconutrition in the outcomes of these patients are described briefly.

A Systematic Review and International Web-Based Survey of Randomized Controlled Trials in the Perioperative and Critical Care Setting: Interventions Increasing Mortality.

OBJECTIVE: Reducing mortality is a key target in critical care and perioperative medicine. The authors aimed to identify all nonsurgical interventions (drugs, techniques, strategies) shown by randomized trials to increase mortality in these clinical settings. DESIGN: A systematic review of the literature followed by a consensus-based voting process. SETTING: A web-based international consensus conference. PARTICIPANTS: Two hundred fifty-one physicians from 46 countries. INTERVENTIONS: The authors performed a systematic literature search and identified all randomized controlled trials (RCTs) showing a significant increase in unadjusted landmark mortality among surgical or critically ill patients. The authors reviewed such studies during a meeting by a core group of experts. Studies selected after such review advanced to web-based voting by clinicians in relation to agreement, clinical practice, and willingness to include each intervention in international guidelines. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: The authors selected 12 RCTs dealing with 12 interventions increasing mortality: diaspirin-crosslinked hemoglobin (92% of agreement among web voters), overfeeding, nitric oxide synthase inhibitor in septic shock, human growth hormone, thyroxin in acute kidney injury, intravenous salbutamol in acute respiratory distress syndrome, plasma-derived protein C concentrate, aprotinin in high-risk cardiac surgery, cysteine prodrug, hypothermia in meningitis, methylprednisolone in traumatic brain injury, and albumin in traumatic brain injury (72% of agreement). Overall, a high consistency (ranging from 80% to 90%) between agreement and clinical practice was observed. CONCLUSION: The authors identified 12 clinical interventions showing increased mortality supported by randomized controlled trials with nonconflicting evidence, and wide agreement upon clinicians on a global scale.

A Systematic Review and International Web-Based Survey of Randomized Controlled Trials in the Perioperative and Critical Care Setting: Interventions Reducing Mortality.

The authors aimed to identify interventions documented by randomized controlled trials (RCTs) that reduce mortality in adult critically ill and perioperative patients, followed by a survey of clinicians' opinions and routine practices to understand the clinicians' response to such evidence. The authors performed a comprehensive literature review to identify all topics reported to reduce mortality in perioperative and critical care settings according to at least 2 RCTs or to a multicenter RCT or to a single-center RCT plus guidelines. The authors generated position statements that were voted on online by physicians worldwide for agreement, use, and willingness to include in international guidelines. From 262 RCT manuscripts reporting mortality differences in the perioperative and critically ill settings, the authors selected 27 drugs, techniques, and strategies (66 RCTs, most frequently published by the New England Journal of Medicine [13 papers], Lancet [7], and Journal of the American Medical Association [5]) with an agreement ≥67% from over 250 physicians (46 countries). Noninvasive ventilation was the intervention supported by the largest number of RCTs (n = 13). The concordance between agreement and use (a positive answer both to "do you agree" and "do you use") showed differences between Western and other countries and between anesthesiologists and intensive care unit physicians. The authors identified 27 clinical interventions with randomized evidence of survival benefit and strong clinician support in support of their potential life-saving properties in perioperative and critically ill patients with noninvasive ventilation having the highest level of support. However, clinician views appear affected by specialty and geographical location.

Considerations for medical nutrition therapy management of the critically ill patient with hematological malignancies: A narrative review.

Patients with hematological malignancies (HMs) are more frequently admitted now than in the past to the intensive care unit (ICU) due to more aggressive approaches in primary therapy of HMs and the need for critical care support. Pathophysiological alterations derived from HMs and the different hematological therapies, such as chemotherapy, negatively affect gastrointestinal (GI) function, metabolism, and nutrition status. Further, malnutrition strongly influences outcomes and tolerance of the different hematological therapies. In consequence, these critically ill patients frequently present with malnutrition and pathophysiological alterations that create challenges for the delivery of medical nutrition therapy (MNT) in the ICU. Frequent screening, gauging tolerance, and monitoring nutrition status are mandatory to provide individualized MNT and achieve nutrition objectives. The present review discusses how HM impact GI function and nutrition status, the importance of MNT in patients with HM, and specific considerations for guidance in providing adequate MNT to these patients when admitted to the ICU.

Smartfeeding: A Dynamic Strategy to Increase Nutritional Efficiency in Critically Ill Patients-Positioning Document of the Metabolism and Nutrition Working Group and the Early Mobilization Working Group of the Catalan Society of Intensive and Critical Care Medicine (SOCMiC).

Adequate medical nutrition therapy for critically ill patients has an impact on their prognoses. However, it requires an individualized approach that takes into account the activity (phases of metabolic stress) and particularity of these patients. We propose a comprehensive strategy considering the patients' nutritional status and the set of modifiable circumstances in these patients, in order to optimize/support nutritional efficiency: (1) A detailed anamnesis and an adequate initial nutritional assessment must be performed in order to implement medical nutrition therapy that is in line with the needs and characteristics of each patient. Furthermore, risks associated with refeeding syndrome, nutritrauma or gastrointestinal dysfunction must be considered and prevented. (2) A safe transition between nutrition therapy routes and between health care units will greatly contribute to recovery. The main objective is to preserve lean mass in critically ill patients, considering metabolic factors, adequate protein intake and muscle stimulation. (3) Continuous monitoring is required for the successful implementation of any health strategy. We lack precise tools for calculating nutritional efficiency in critically ill patients, therefore thorough monitoring of the process is essential. (4) The medical nutrition approach in critically ill patients is multidisciplinary and requires the participation of the entire team involved. A comprehensive strategy such as this can make a significant difference in the functional recovery of critically ill patients, but leaders must be identified to promote training, evaluation, analysis and feedback as essential components of its implementation, and to coordinate this process with the recognition of hospital management.

Study of the accuracy of a radial arterial pressure waveform cardiac output measurement device after cardiac surgery.

BACKGROUND: Less invasive monitoring, such as radial arterial pulse contour analysis (ProAQT® sensor), represents an alternative when hemodynamic monitoring is necessary to guide postoperative management and invasive monitoring is not technically feasible. The aim of the study is to evaluate the accuracy of the ProAQT® sensor cardiac output measurements in comparison with Pulmonary Artery Catheter (PAC) during the postoperative course of patients who underwent cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass. CASE PRESENTATION: Prospective observational study in a Surgical Intensive Care Unit of a tertiary university hospital. Ten patients with a mean age of 73.5 years were included. The main comorbidities were hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidemia and the preoperative left ejection fraction was 43.8 ± 14.5%. Regarding the type of surgery, six patients underwent valve surgery, two underwent coronary artery bypass grafting and two underwent aortic surgery. The cardiac index measured simultaneously by the ProAQT® sensor was compared with the PAC. The parameters were evaluated at predefined time points during the early postoperative courses (6 h, 12 h, 24 h, 48 h and 72 h). The degree of agreement with the cardiac index between the PAC and the ProAQT® sensor along the time points was measured using the concordance correlation coefficient, Bland-Altman analysis, and four-quadrant plot. Sixty-three pairs of measurements were analyzed. We showed that measurements of cardiac index were slightly higher with PAC (ß Ì‚ = - 0.146, p-value = 0.094). The concordance correlation coefficient for the additive model of cardiac index was 0.64 (95% Confidence Interval: 0.36, 0.82), indicating a high concordance between both sensors. Bland-Altmann analysis showed a mean bias of 0.45 L·min-1·m-2, limits of agreement from - 1.65 to 2.3 L·min-1·m-2, and percentage of error was 82.5%. Four-quadrant plot of changes in cardiac index showed a good concordance rate (75%), which increases after applying the exclusion zone (87%). CONCLUSIONS: In patients undergoing cardiac surgery, the ProAQT® sensor may be useful to monitor cardiac index during the postoperative period, especially when more invasive monitoring is not possible.

Parenteral Nutrition: Current Use, Complications, and Nutrition Delivery in Critically Ill Patients.

BACKGROUND: Parenteral nutrition (PN) is needed to avoid the development of malnutrition when enteral nutrition (EN) is not possible. Our main aim was to assess the current use, complications, and nutrition delivery associated with PN administration in adult critically ill patients, especially when used early and as the initial route. We also assessed the differences between patients who received only PN and those in whom EN was initiated after PN (PN-EN). METHODS: A multicenter (n = 37) prospective observational study was performed. Patient clinical characteristics, outcomes, and nutrition-related variables were recorded. Statistical differences between subgroups were analyzed accordingly. RESULTS: From the entire population (n = 629), 186 (29.6%) patients received PN as initial nutrition therapy. Of these, 74 patients (11.7%) also received EN during their ICU stay (i.e., PN-EN subgroup). PN was administered early (<48 h) in the majority of patients (75.3%; n = 140) and the mean caloric (19.94 ± 6.72 Kcal/kg/day) and protein (1.01 ± 0.41 g/kg/day) delivery was similar to other contemporary studies. PN showed similar nutritional delivery when compared with the enteral route. No significant complications were associated with the use of PN. Thirty-two patients (43.3%) presented with EN-related complications in the PN-EN subgroup but received a higher mean protein delivery (0.95 ± 0.43 vs 1.17 ± 0.36 g/kg/day; p = 0.03) compared with PN alone. Once adjusted for confounding factors, patients who received PN alone had a lower mean protein intake (hazard ratio (HR): 0.29; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.18-0.47; p = 0.001), shorter ICU stay (HR: 0.96; 95% CI: 0.91-0.99; p = 0.008), and fewer days on mechanical ventilation (HR: 0.85; 95% CI: 0.81-0.89; p = 0.001) compared with the PN-EN subgroup. CONCLUSION: The parenteral route may be safe, even when administered early, and may provide adequate nutrition delivery. Additional EN, when possible, may optimize protein requirements, especially in more severe patients who received initial PN and are expected to have longer ICU stays. NCT Registry: 03634943.

Factors associated with the need of parenteral nutrition in critically ill patients after the initiation of enteral nutrition therapy.

Background and aims: Despite enteral nutrition (EN) is the preferred route of nutrition in patients with critical illness, EN is not always able to provide optimal nutrient provision and parenteral nutrition (PN) is needed. This is strongly associated with gastrointestinal (GI) complications, a feature of gastrointestinal dysfunction and disease severity. The aim of the present study was to investigate factors associated with the need of PN after start of EN, together with the use and complications associated with EN. Methods: Adult patients admitted to 38 Spanish intensive care units (ICUs) between April and July 2018, who needed EN therapy were included in a prospective observational study. The characteristics of EN-treated patients and those who required PN after start EN were analyzed (i.e., clinical, laboratory and scores). Results: Of a total of 443 patients, 43 (9.7%) received PN. One-third (29.3%) of patients presented GI complications, which were more frequent among those needing PN (26% vs. 60%, p = 0.001). No differences regarding mean energy and protein delivery were found between patients treated only with EN (n = 400) and those needing supplementary or total PN (n = 43). Abnormalities in lipid profile, blood proteins, and inflammatory markers, such as C-Reactive Protein, were shown in those patients needing PN. Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) on ICU admission (Hazard ratio [HR]:1.161, 95% confidence interval [CI]:1.053-1.281, p = 0.003) and modified Nutrition Risk in Critically Ill (mNUTRIC) score (HR:1.311, 95% CI:1.098-1.565, p = 0.003) were higher among those who needed PN. In the multivariate analysis, higher SOFA score (HR:1.221, 95% CI:1.057-1.410, p = 0.007) and higher triglyceride levels on ICU admission (HR:1.004, 95% CI:1.001-1.007, p = 0.003) were associated with an increased risk for the need of PN, whereas higher albumin levels on ICU admission (HR:0.424, 95% CI:0.210-0.687, p = 0.016) was associated with lower need of PN. Conclusion: A higher SOFA and nutrition-related laboratory parameters on ICU admission may be associated with the need of PN after starting EN therapy. This may be related with a higher occurrence of GI complications, a feature of GI dysfunction. Clinical trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT03634943.

The Effect of Enteral Immunonutrition in the Intensive Care Unit: Does It Impact on Outcomes?

Background: The present research aimed to evaluate the effect on outcomes of immunonutrition (IMN) enteral formulas during the intensive care unit (ICU) stay. Methods: A multicenter prospective observational study was performed. Patient characteristics, disease severity, nutritional status, type of nutritional therapy and outcomes, and laboratory parameters were collected in a database. Statistical differences were analyzed according to the administration of IMN or other types of enteral formulas. Results: In total, 406 patients were included in the analysis, of whom 15.02% (61) received IMN. Univariate analysis showed that patients treated with IMN formulas received higher mean caloric and protein intake, and better 28-day survival (85.2% vs. 73.3%; p = 0.014. Unadjusted Hazard Ratio (HR): 0.15; 95% CI (Confidence Interval): 0.06−0.36; p < 0.001). Once adjusted for confounding factors, multivariate analysis showed a lower need for vasopressor support (OR: 0.49; 95% CI: 0.26−0.91; p = 0.023) and continuous renal replacement therapies (OR: 0.13; 95% CI: 0.01−0.65; p = 0.049) in those patients who received IMN formulas, independently of the severity of the disease. IMN use was also associated with higher protein intake during the administration of nutritional therapy (OR: 6.23; 95% CI: 2.59−15.54; p < 0.001), regardless of the type of patient. No differences were found in the laboratory parameters, except for a trend toward lower triglyceride levels (HR: 0.97; 95% CI: 0.95−0.99; p = 0.045). Conclusion: The use of IMN formulas may be associated with better outcomes (i.e., lower need for vasopressors and continuous renal replacement), together with a trend toward higher protein enteral delivery during the ICU stay. These findings may ultimately be related to their modulating effect on the inflammatory response in the critically ill. NCT Registry: 03634943.

PROPHETIC EU: Prospective Identification of Pneumonia in Hospitalized Patients in the Intensive Care Unit in European and United States Cohorts.

Background: The prospective identification of patients at high risk for hospital-acquired/ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia may improve clinical trial feasibility and foster antibacterial development. In a prior study conducted in the United States, clinical criteria were used to prospectively identify these patients; however, these criteria have not been applied in a European population. Methods: Adults considered high risk for pneumonia (treatment with ventilation or high levels of supplemental oxygen) in the intensive care units of 7 European hospitals were prospectively enrolled from June 12 to December 27, 2017. We estimated the proportion of high-risk patients developing pneumonia according to US Food and Drug Administration guidance and a subset potentially eligible for antibacterial trial enrollment. We compared patient characteristics, treatment exposures, and pneumonia incidence in a European cohort and a previously described US cohort. Results: Of 888 high-risk patients, 211/888 (24%) were treated for possible pneumonia, and 150/888 (17%) met the Food and Drug Administration definition for hospital-acquired/ventilator-associated bacterial pneumonia. A higher proportion of European patients treated for possible pneumonia met the pneumonia definition (150/211 [71%] vs 537/1464 [37%]; P < .001). Among patients developing pneumonia, a higher proportion of European patients met antibacterial trial eligibility criteria (124/150 [83%] vs 371/537 [69%]; P < .001). Conclusions: Clinical criteria prospectively identified high-risk patients with high rates of pneumonia in the European cohort. Despite higher rates of established risk factors and incident pneumonia, European patients were significantly less likely to receive antibiotics for possible pneumonia than US patients. Different treatment practices may contribute to lower rates of antibacterial trial enrollment in the United States.

Enteral nutrition in critically ill patients under vasoactive drug therapy: The NUTRIVAD study.

BACKGROUND: Enteral nutrition (EN) in critically ill patients requiring vasoactive drug (VAD) support is controversial. This study assesses the tolerability and safety of EN in such patients. METHODS: This prospective observational study was conducted in 23 intensive care units (ICUs) over 30 months. Inclusion criteria were a need for VADs and/or mechanic circulatory support (MCS) over a minimum of 48 h, a need for ≥48 h of mechanical ventilation, an estimated life expectancy >72 h, and ≥72 h of ICU stay. Patients with refractory shock were excluded. EN was performed according to established protocols during which descriptive, daily hemodynamic and efficacy, and safety data were collected. An independent research group conducted the statistical analysis. RESULTS: Of 200 patients included, 30 (15%) required MCS and 145 (73%) met early multiorgan dysfunction criteria. Mortality was 24%. Patients needed a mean dose of norepinephrine in the first 48 h of 0.71 mcg/kg/min (95% CI, 0.63-0.8) targeting a mean arterial pressure of 68 mm Hg (95% CI, 67-70) during the first 48 h. EN was started 34 h (95% CI, 31-37) after ICU admission. Mean energy and protein delivered by EN/patient/day were 1159 kcal (95% CI, 1098-1220) and 55.6 g (95% CI, 52.4-58.7), respectively. Daily energy balance during EN/patient/day was -432 (95% CI, -496 to -368). One hundred and fifty-four (77%) patients experienced EN-related complications. However, severe complications, such as mesenteric ischemia, were recorded in only one (0.5%) patient. CONCLUSION: EN in these patients seems feasible, safe, and unrelated to serious complications. Reaching the energy target only through EN is difficult.

Evaluation of the delta of immature platelet fraction as a predictive biomarker of inflammatory response after cardiac surgery.

AIMS: Cardiac surgery (CS) can induce an inflammatory response (IR) that is associated with poorer outcomes. Immature platelets are among the factors that may be associated with IR development. We aimed to evaluate whether immature platelet fraction (IPF) could be a predictive biomarker for IR and whether IPF could improve the prognosis assessment of IR for Acute Physiologic and Chronic Health Evaluation (APACHE II) and Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (SOFA) following CS. METHODS: Three-hundred and twenty-seven (327) patients who underwent CS were enrolled during the study period. IR was defined according to the need for vasopressor support (>48 hours). Perioperative variables and outcomes were registered in our database. IPF was measured immediately following CS and at 24 hours by Sysmex XN analyzer and the difference between both measurements (ΔIPF) was calculated. To assess the relationship between ΔIPF and IR, univariate and multivariate logistic regression were performed. To analyse the additive value of ΔIPF in APACHE II and SOFA scores in predicting IR, an area under the receiver operating characteristic (AUROC) curve was calculated. RESULTS: Among 327 patients included, 60 patients (18.3%) developed IR. Multivariate analysis showed ΔIPF was significantly associated with IR (OR: 1.26; 95% CI: 1.01 to 1.56; p=0.038). The combination of ΔIPF with scores improved the AUROC for IR prediction: 0.629 vs 0.728 (p=0.010) for APACHE II and 0.676 vs 0.715 (p=0.106) for SOFA. CONCLUSION: These findings suggested that ΔIPF may be a useful and low-cost biomarker for the early identification of patients at risk of IR development.

The influence of postoperative albumin levels on the outcome of cardiac surgery.

BACKGROUND: The prognostic role of low postoperative serum albumin levels (SAL) after cardiac surgery (CS) remains unclear in patients with normal preoperative SAL. Our aim was to evaluate the influence of SAL on the outcome of CS. METHODS: Prospective observational study. Patients undergoing CS with normal preoperative SAL and nutritional status were included and classified into different subgroups based on SAL at 24 h after CS. We assessed outcomes (i.e., in-hospital mortality, postoperative complications and long-term survival) and results were analyzed among the different subgroups of SAL. RESULTS: We included 2818 patients. Mean age was 64.5 ± 11.6 years and body mass index 28.0 ± 4.3Kg·m- 2. 5.8%(n = 162) of the patients had normal SAL levels(≥35 g·L- 1), 32.8%(n = 924) low deficit (30-34.9 g·L- 1), 44.3%(n = 1249) moderate deficit (25-29.9 g·L- 1), and 17.1%(n = 483) severe deficit(< 25 g·L- 1). Higher SAL after CS was associated with reduced in-hospital (OR:0.84;95% CI:0.80-0.84; P = 0.007) and long-term mortality (HR:0.85;95% CI:0.82-0.87;P < 0.001). Subgroups of patients with lower SAL showed worst long-term survival (5-year mortality:94.3% normal subgroup, 87.4% low, 83.1% moderate and 72.4% severe;P < 0.001). Multivariable analysis showed higher in-hospital mortality, sepsis, hemorrhage related complications, and ICU stay in subgroups of patients with lower SAL. Predictors of moderate and severe hypoalbuminemia were preoperative chronic kidney disease, previous CS, and longer cardiopulmonary bypass time. CONCLUSIONS: The presence of postoperative hypoalbuminemia after CS is frequent and the degree of hypoalbuminemia may be associated with worst outcomes, even in the long-term scenario.

[Evaluation of the degree of adherence to the nutritional recommendations of the critical care patient]. / Evaluación del grado de adherencia a las recomendaciones nutricionales en el paciente crítico.

INTRODUCTION: Background: the application of specialized nutritional support (SNE) is difficult at the organizational level due to the complexity of clinical practice guidelines and we do not know the degree of adherence to the published nutritional recommendations. The aim of this study was to assess the degree of adherence to the recommendations of high impact and "do not do" within our environment, in order to show areas for improvement. Methods: survey of nine questions agreed by experts and carried out in different ICUs of our environment, which reflected the recommendations in SNE. Data related to the organizational characteristics and the healthcare provider that indicated the nutritional support were collected. The differences regarding the degree of adherence between the level of care and the presence of an expert in these units were analyzed. Results: thirty-seven ICUs participated, which corresponded mostly to second level hospitals and polyvalent ICUs with an SNE indicated by intensivists. The adherence to the recommendations was > 80%, with three exceptions associated with issues related to the refeeding syndrome (70.3%), the caloric-protein adjustment of nutrition according to the patient's evolutionary phase (51.4%) and the adjustment of protein intake in patients with renal failure (40.5%). There were no differences according to the level of care or the presence of an expert in these ICUs. Only a greater availability of local nutrition protocols was observed in those ICUs with an expertise. Conclusions: there is a high theoretical adherence to the majority of recommendations in the nutritional field, with exceptions that could correspond to areas where there is an opportunity for improvement.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Objetivo: la aplicación del soporte nutricional especializado (SNE) es difícil a nivel organizativo debido a la complejidad de las guías de práctica clínica y desconocemos el grado de adherencia a las recomendaciones nutricionales publicadas. El objetivo del presente estudio fue valorar el grado de adherencia a las recomendaciones de alto impacto y de "no hacer" en nuestro entorno, con la finalidad de objetivar áreas de mejora. Métodos: encuesta de nueve preguntas consensuada por expertos y realizada en diferentes UCI de nuestro medio, que reflejaba las recomendaciones nutricionales en SNE. Se recogieron datos relacionados con las características organizativas y el profesional que indicaba el soporte nutricional. Se analizaron las diferencias en relación al grado de adherencia según el nivel asistencial y a la presencia de un experto en dichas unidades. Resultados: participaron 37 UCI, las cuales pertenecían preferentemente a hospitales de segundo nivel y eran polivalentes, con un SNE indicado por intensivistas. La adherencia a las recomendaciones fue > 80%, con tres excepciones asociadas a ítems relacionados con el síndrome de realimentación (70,3%), al ajuste calórico-proteico de la nutrición según las fases evolutivas del paciente (51,4%) y al ajuste del aporte proteico en pacientes con insuficiencia renal (40,5%). No hubo diferencias en función del nivel asistencial o la presencia de un experto en dichas UCI. Tan solo se objetivó una mayor disponibilidad de protocolos de nutrición locales en aquellas UCI que contaban con un experto. Conclusiones: existe una alta adherencia teórica a la mayoría de recomendaciones de ámbito nutricional, objetivándose excepciones que se podrían corresponder a áreas en las que hay una oportunidad de mejora.

Halogenated Agents and Cardiovascular Surgery: Has Mortality Really Decreased?

Halogenated anesthetic agents (desflurane, isoflurane and sevoflurane) may have cardioprotective properties at therapeutic doses against myocardial intraoperative ischemia-reperfusion injury. Cardioprotection mechanisms are related to mitochondrial and anti-apoptotic signaling pathways. Experimentals and human studies have proven that their use may reduce morbidity and mortality in the setting of cardiac surgery, including a reduction in myocardial infarct size and mechanical ventilation needs. In contrast, total intra-venous propofol based anesthesia may be detrimental. In the present review, we show the rationale for the perioperative use of halogenated anesthetics based on mechanisms of action, experimental research and human studies. Considerations and major concerns regarding their use, the present evidence for their use in other areas, such as major non-cardiac surgery and intensive care unit patients, and future perspectives are also discussed.