Toll-like receptors as a target of food-derived anti-inflammatory compounds.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a key role in linking pathogen recognition with the induction of innate immunity. They have been implicated in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammatory diseases, representing potential targets for prevention/treatment. Vegetable-rich diets are associated with the reduced risk of several inflammatory disorders. In the present study, based on an extensive screening of vegetable extracts for TLR-inhibiting activity in HEK293 cells co-expressing TLR with the NF-κB reporter gene, we found cabbage and onion extracts to be the richest sources of a TLR signaling inhibitor. To identify the active substances, we performed activity-guiding separation of the principal inhibitors and identified 3-methylsulfinylpropyl isothiocyanate (iberin) from the cabbage and quercetin and quercetin 4'-O-ß-glucoside from the onion, among which iberin showed the most potent inhibitory effect. It was revealed that iberin specifically acted on the dimerization step of TLRs in the TLR signaling pathway. To gain insight into the inhibitory mechanism of TLR dimerization, we developed a novel probe combining an isothiocyanate-reactive group and an alkyne functionality for click chemistry and detected the probe bound to the TLRs in living cells, suggesting that iberin disrupts dimerization of the TLRs via covalent binding. Furthermore, we designed a variety of iberin analogues and found that the inhibition potency was influenced by the oxidation state of the sulfur. Modeling studies of the iberin analogues showed that the oxidation state of sulfur might influence the global shape of the isothiocyanates. These findings establish the TLR dimerization step as a target of food-derived anti-inflammatory compounds.

Dioxygen activation of a trinuclear Cu(I)Cu(I)Cu(I) cluster capable of mediating facile oxidation of organic substrates: competition between O-atom transfer and abortive intercomplex reduction.

The dioxygen activation of a series of Cu(I)Cu(I)Cu(I) complexes based on the ligands (L) 3,3'-(1,4-diazepane- 1,4-diyl)bis(1-{[2-(dimethylamino)ethyl](methyl)amino}propan-2-ol)(7-Me) or 3,3'-(1,4-diazepane-1,4-diyl)bis(1-{[2-(diethylamino)ethyl](ethyl)amino}propan-2-ol)(7-Et) forms an intermediate capable of mediating facile O-atom transfer to simple organic substrates at room temperature. To elucidate the dioxygen chemistry, we have examined the reactions of 7-Me, 7-Et, and 3,3'-(1,4-diazepane-1,4-diyl)bis[1-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)propan-2-ol] (7-N-Meppz) with dioxygen at -80, -55, and -35 °C in propionitrile (EtCN) by UV-visible, 77 K EPR, and X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and 7-N-Meppz and 7-Me with dioxygen at room temperature in acetonitrile (MeCN) by diode array spectrophotometry. At both -80 and -55 °C, the mixing of the starting [Cu(I)Cu(I)Cu(I)(L)](1+) complex (1) with O(2)-saturated propionitrile (EtCN) led to a bright green solution consisting of two paramagnetic species: the green dioxygen adduct [Cu(II)Cu(II)(µ-η(2):η(2)-peroxo)Cu(II)(L)](2+) (2) and the blue [Cu(II)Cu(II)(µ-O)Cu(II)(L)](2+) species (3). These observations are consistent with the initial formation of [Cu(II)Cu(II)(µ-O)(2)Cu(III)(L)](1+)(4), followed by rapid abortion of this highly reactive species by intercluster electron transfer from a second molecule of complex 1 to give the blue species 3 and subsequent oxygenation of the partially oxidized [Cu(II)Cu(I)Cu(I)(L)](2+)(5) to form the green dioxygen adduct 2. Assignment of 2 to [Cu(II)Cu(II)(µ-η(2):η(2)-peroxo)Cu(II)(L)](2+) is consistent with its reactivity with water to give H(2)O(2) and the blue species 3, as well as its propensity to be photoreduced in the X-ray beam during X-ray absorption experiments at room temperature. In light of these observations, the development of an oxidation catalyst based on the tricopper system requires consideration of the following design criteria: 1) rapid dioxygen chemistry; 2) facile O-atom transfer from the activated cluster to substrate; and 3) a suitable reductant to rapidly regenerate complex 1 to accomplish efficient catalytic turnover.

The PmoB subunit of particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) in Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath): The CuI sponge and its function.

In this study, we describe efforts to clarify the role of the copper cofactors associated with subunit B (PmoB) of the particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) from Methylococcus capsulatus (Bath) (M. capsulatus). This subunit exhibits strong affinity toward CuI ions. To elucidate the high copper affinity of the subunit, the full-length PmoB, and the N-terminal truncated mutants PmoB33-414 and PmoB55-414, each fused to the maltose-binding protein (MBP), are cloned and over-expressed into Escherichia coli (E. coli) K12 TB1 cells. The Y374F, Y374S and M300L mutants of these protein constructs are also studied. When this E. coli is grown with the pmoB gene in 1.0 mM CuII, it behaves like M. capsulatus (Bath) cultured under high copper stress with abundant membrane accumulation and high CuI content. The recombinant PmoB proteins are verified by Western blotting of antibodies directed against the MBP sub-domain in each of the copper-enriched PmoB proteins. Cu K-edge X-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy (XANES) of the copper ions confirms that all the PmoB recombinants are CuI proteins. All the PmoB proteins show evidence of a "dicopper site" according to analysis of the Cu extended X-ray absorption edge fine structure (EXAFS) of the membranes. No specific activities toward methane and propene oxidation are observed with the recombinant membrane-bound PmoB proteins. However, significant production of hydrogen peroxide is observed in the case of the PmoB33-414 mutant. Reaction of the dicopper site with dioxygen produces hydrogen peroxide and leads to oxidation of the CuI ions residing in the C-terminal sub-domain of the PmoB subunit.

Induction of G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis by a novel enediyne derivative, THDB, in chronic myeloid leukemia (HL-60) cells.

(Z)-2-(6-(Thieanisyl-2-yl)hexa-3-en-1,5-diynyl)benzenamine (THDB), an enediyne compound, was identified in our laboratory as a novel antineoplastic agent with broad spectrum of antitumor activities against many human cancer cells. THDB was found to inhibit the growth of HL-60 cells in a time-and dose-dependent manner. Cell cycle analysis showed G2/M phase arrest in HL-60 cells following 48 h exposure to THDB. Analysis of the cell cycle regulatory proteins demonstrated that THDB did not change the steady-state levels of cyclin B1, cyclin E, Cdk1 and Cdc25C, but decreased the protein levels of Cdk2 and cyclin A. THDB also caused a marked increase in apoptosis, as characterized by DNA fragmentation (DNA ladder and sub G1 formation), and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage, which was associated with activation of caspase-3, caspase-8 and caspase-9. Moreover, the THDB-induced apoptosis was significantly attenuated in the presence of specific inhibitors of caspase-3, -8 and -9. These molecular alterations provide an insight into THDB-caused growth inhibition, G2/M arrest and apoptotic death of HL-60 cells.

Induction of G2/M phase arrest by squamocin in chronic myeloid leukemia (K562) cells.

Squamocin is one of the annonaceous acetogenins and has been reported to have anticancer activity. Squamocin was found to inhibit the growth of K562 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Cell cycle analysis showed G2/M phase arrest in K562 cells following 24 h exposure to squamocin. During the G2/M arrest, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKIs), p21 and p27 were increased in a dose-dependent manner. Analysis of the cell cycle regulatory proteins demonstrated that squamocin did not change the steady-state levels of Cdk2, Cdk4, cyclin A, cyclin B1, cyclin D3 and cyclin E, but decreased the protein levels of Cdk1 and Cdc25C. These results suggest that squamocin inhibits the proliferation of K562 cells via G2/M arrest in association with the induction of p21, p27 and the reduction of Cdk1 and Cdc25C kinase activities.

Induction of apoptosis in human leukemia K562 cells by cardiotoxin III.

Cardiotoxin III (CTX III), a basic polypeptide with 60 amino acid residues isolated from Naja naja atra venom, has been reported to have anticancer activity. CTX III was found to inhibit the growth of K562 cells in a time-and dose-dependent manner with IC50 value of 1.7 microg/ml, and it displayed several features of apoptosis including apoptotic body formation, increase of sub G1 population, DNA fragmentation and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage. Investigation of the mechanism of CTXIII--induced apoptosis revealed that the treatment of K562 cells with CTX III resulted in the activation of caspase-9, caspase-3 and subsequent cleavage of its substrate PARP and that CTXIII was also associated with an early release of cytochrome c from the mitochondria. These results suggest that CTX III may induce apoptosis through a mitochondria- and caspase-dependent mechanism.

Induction of G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis by a novel enediyne derivative, THDA, in chronic myeloid leukemia (K562) cells.

We studied the effect of 2-(6-(2-thieanisyl)-3(Z)-hexen-1,5-diynyl)aniline(THDA), a newly developed anti-cancer agent, on cell proliferation, cell cycle progression, and induction of apoptosis in K562 cells. THDA was found to inhibit the growth of K562 cells in a time-and dose-dependent manner. Cell cycle analysis showed G2/M phase arrest and apoptosis in K562 cells following 24 h exposure to THDA. During the G2/M arrest, cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (CDKIs), p21 and p27 were increased in a time-dependent manner. Analysis of the cell cycle regulatory proteins demonstrated that THDA did not change the steady-state levels of cyclin B1, cyclin D3 and Cdc25C, but decreased the protein levels of Cdk1, Cdk2 and cyclin A. THDA also caused a marked increase in apoptosis, which was associated with activation of caspase-3 and proteolytic cleavage of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase. These molecular alterations provide an insight into THDA-caused growth inhibition, G2/M arrest and apoptotic death of K562 cells.

Cardiotoxin III induces apoptosis in K562 cells through a mitochondrial-mediated pathway.

1. Cardiotoxin (CTX) III is a basic polypeptide with 60 amino acid residues isolated from Naja naja atra venom. This is the first report on the mechanism of the anticancer effect of CTX III on human leukaemia K562 cells. 2. Cardiotoxin III was found to inhibit the growth of K562 cells in a time- and dose-dependent manner, with an IC(50) value of 1.7 mug/mL, and displayed several features of apoptosis, including apoptotic body formation, an increase in the sub-G(1) population, DNA fragmentation and poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) cleavage. 3. Investigation of the mechanism of CTX III-induced apoptosis revealed that treatment of K562 cells with CTX III resulted in the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, cytochrome c release from mitochondria into the cytosol and activation of caspase-9 and caspase-3 and the subsequent cleavage of the caspase-3 substrate PARP; however, CTX III did not generate reactive oxygen species (ROS). 4. Taken together, the results indicate that CTX III induces apoptosis in K562 cells through an ROS-independent mitochondrial dysfunction pathway.