Cold stress induces metabolic activation of thyrotrophin-releasing hormone-synthesising neurones in the magnocellular division of the hypothalamic paraventricular nucleus and concomitantly changes ovarian sympathetic activity parameters.

Recent studies suggest thyrotrophin-releasing hormone (TRH) serves as a neurotransmitter and thereby provides a functional vegetative connection between the brain and the ovary. In the present study, magnocellular neurones of the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) in animals subjected to cold exposure were studied to determine the hypothalamic origin of the TRH involved in this pathway. In situ hybridisation analysis of hypothalamic tissue showed that cold exposure causes a two-fold increase in the total number of neurones expressing TRH mRNA in the PVN. Immunohistochemical studies showed that TRH peptide is localised to the magnocellular PVN and that the number of TRH immunoreactive cells increases two-fold following 64 h of cold exposure. Double-immunostaining for MAP-2 and TRH revealed that TRH peptide is localised in the perikarya of the magnocellular neurones. TRH release was measured in vivo from the magnocellular portion of the PVN using push-pull perfusion. Although controls exhibited a very low level of TRH release, animals subjected to cold showed a pulsatile-like TRH release profile with two different patterns of release: (i) low basal level with small bursts of TRH release and (ii) a profile with an up to seven-fold increase in TRH release compared to controls. The colocalisation of TRH with the specific somato-dendritic marker MAP-2 in processes of the magnocellular neurones suggested a local release of TRH. Additional studies demonstrated a reduction in ovarian noradrenaline content after 48 h of cold exposure, a feature indicative of nerve activation at the terminal organ. After 64 h of cold exposure, the ovarian noradrenaline returned to control values but the noradrenaline content of the coeliac ganglia was increased, suggesting a compensatory effect originating in the cell bodies of the sympathetic neurones that innervate the ovary. The correlation between the local release of TRH from dendrites within the magnocellular PVN in conditions of cold and the activation of the sympathetic nerves supplying the ovary raises the possibility that TRH contributes to the processing regulating sympathetic outflow and may thereby impact on the functional activity of the ovary.

Activation of ovarian sympathetic nerves in polycystic ovary syndrome.

Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is one of the most common human ovarian pathologies affecting women of reproductive age. Despite extensive investigation, the etiology of PCOS remains poorly understood. Experimentally, a PCO-like syndrome can be induced in rodents by a single dose of the long-acting estrogen, estradiol valerate (EV). We have used this model to examine the possibility that PCOS is associated with derangement of the sympathetic control of the ovary. The release of newly incorporated norepinephrine (NE) from ovarian nerve terminals in response to transmural stimulation of the gland increased significantly before the formation of cysts (30 days after EV injection) and remained elevated at the time when cysts form (60 days). The increase in evoked NE release was accompanied by an augmented NE content and enhanced incorporation of [3H]NE into ovarian tissue; both of these changes had been initiated by 30 days after EV treatment and became unambiguous at the time of cyst formation. The overall increase in ovarian sympathetic outflow suggested by these alterations in catecholamine homeostasis was accompanied by a thecal cell-interstitial tissue selective down-regulation of beta-adrenergic receptors; the beta-adrenergic receptor concentration in these sympathetically innervated ovarian compartments was significantly lower in PCO than during the estrous phase of the estrous cycle, a time at which the beta-adrenergic receptor concentration reaches its lowest levels in normal cycling ovaries. Tyrosine hydroxylase activity was found to increase only when expressed per mg ovary, but not in absolute terms (i.e. per total ovary), suggesting regulation of enzyme activity by the enhanced catecholamine content. The results demonstrate that an activation of the sympathetic neurons innervating the ovary precedes the development of cysts in EV-induced PCOS and raise the possibility that a derangement of sympathetic inputs to the ovary contributes to the etiology of PCOS.

Liver copper storage and transport during development: implications for cytotoxicity.

Copper is an essential trace element for many biological processes. Its functions range from influencing specific gene expression to serving as a cofactor or prosthetic group for several enzymes. Intakes of copper at doses that exceed physiologic demands are normally met with efficient homeostatic mechanisms. Ceruloplasmin, albumin, and transcuprein, and to a lesser extent certain amino acids, are major copper-transporting constituents in circulating plasma. After its hepatic uptake, copper may be stored within hepatocytes, secreted into plasma, or excreted in bile. The biliary route represents the major excretory pathway of copper and largely accounts for its hepatic turnover. Copper retained by hepatocytes is mostly bound to specific metal-binding proteins, primarily metallothionein, or incorporated into several cuproenzymes. Copper incorporation into metallothionein and certain cuproproteins appears to require prior binding of copper to glutathione, thus defining a relation between copper metabolism and the intracellular availability of glutathione. Hepatic metallothionein concentrations can be modulated by dietary copper; changes in metallothionein and in copper status are significant throughout development. Binding of copper to metallothionein provides a temporary storage for cytoplasmic copper, preventing it from occurring as (potentially toxic) free ionic metal. In its unbound form, copper can generate hydroxyl radicals. Because metallothionein exhibits a high reactivity toward these radicals, it is increasingly recognized to play a protective role against copper-induced cytotoxicity. We discuss some of the possible toxicologic implications that may arise from changes in hepatic copper and metallothionein status during development.

Changes in sympathetic nerve activity of the mammalian ovary during a normal estrous cycle and in polycystic ovary syndrome: Studies on norepinephrine release.

Although it has been known for many years that the ovary is innervated by catecholaminergic nerve fibers and much experimental evidence has strengthened the notion that catecholamines are physiologically involved in the control of ovarian function, scarce evidence has been presented as to the role of sympathetic activity in ovarian pathologies that affect reproductive function. The purpose of this article is to provide a succinct overview of the findings in this area and discuss them relative to the pathology of polycystic ovary syndrome, the most common ovarian pathology in women during their reproductive years.

Hypothalamic changes in norepinephrine release in rats with estradiol valerate-induced polycystic ovaries.

Chronic anovulation and polycystic ovaries (PCO) can be induced by a single i.m. injection of estradiol valerate (EV, 2 mg in oil) in the rat. Constant exposure to high plasma levels of estradiol provokes a neurotoxic effect on the hypothalamic neurons, including those from the arcuate nucleus. Because of the important participation of hypothalamic norepinephrine (NE) in the regulation of GnRH release and the possible noxious effect of prolonged exposure of these neurons to estradiol, our interest was to study the activity of the noradrenergic neurons innervating the hypothalamus. We analyzed the biosynthesis, content, and release of NE from the noradrenergic nerve terminals of the hypothalamus during the PCO condition. We found a decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) activity and in the content of dopamine (DA) in the anterior hypothalamus after 2 mo of EV injection, whereas dopamine-beta-hydroxylase (D beta H) was increased without changes in NE content. No variations in TH activity or in DA and NE contents in the medial hypothalamus were observed, but a decrease in D beta H activity was evident. After 2 mo of EV administration, an increase in the electrically induced release of NE from anterior hypothalamic blocks incubated in vitro was detected; this effect was not evidenced in the medial hypothalamus. After 5 mo of EV administration, release of NE increased in anterior hypothalamic blocks but decreased in medial hypothalamic tissue. The inhibitory effect of morphine on NE release found in control animals was increased in the hypothalamus from PCO rats, suggesting an increased number of mu-opioid binding sites in noradrenergic neurons.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Thyrotropin-releasing hormone as a mediator of the central autonomic pathway controlling ovarian function.

We studied the effect of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) applied centrally on the sympathetic activity of the ovary in female rats. Intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) administration of a dose of 25 ng/kg weight produced an increase in noradrenaline (NA) content at the ovary after 5 days of hormone administration. However, higher doses in a range up to 500 ng/kg weight decreased NA content at the ovary. At the celiac ganglia (where the cell bodies of sympathetic neurons projecting to the ovary originate) there was an accumulation of NA in spite of a decrease in tyrosine hydroxylase activity (T-OH). After cold exposure, opposite effects on T-OH activity and no effects on NA in ganglia and in ovary were obtained. Besides, i.v. injection of TRH only induced a decrease in ovarian NA. In contrast to the increase in T(3) plasma levels obtained after the cold-stress procedure, none of the i.c.v. doses of TRH used produced changes in T(3) plasma levels, strongly suggesting that the effect on sympathetic activity is mediated by a central effect of TRH acting as a putative activator of ovarian sympathetic nerves.

Release of norepinephrine from human ovary: coupling to steroidogenic response.

We investigated the possibility that norepinephrine from the human ovary is released after nerve stimulation and that this neurotransmitter is coupled to a steroidogenic response. Biologically significant levels of both norepinephrine and dopamine were found in human ovarian biopsies. [3H]norepinephrine incorporated in vitro was readily released by electrical stimulation in a Ca2+-dependent process. Ovarian membrane preparations exhibited specific binding sites for the beta-adrenergic antagonist [3H]dihydroalprenolol. Displacement of [3H]dihydroalprenolol with zinterol (a specific beta2-agonist) indicated that 72% of these sites were type beta2-receptors. beta-receptors were also present on granulosa cells. Stimulation of granulosa cells with luteinizing hormone or the beta-agonist isoproterenol increased the release of progesterone after 4 d in culture. These results suggest that the sympathetic nerves present in human ovary are coupled to beta-adrenergic receptors present in endocrine cells and, as in nonprimate mammals, appear to participate in the regulation of ovarian function.

Toxic effects of acetylcholinesterase on neuronal and glial-like cells in vitro.

Acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme involved in the hydrolysis of the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, has been implicated in non-cholinergic actions which may play a role in neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease. To study the potential cytotoxicity of brain AChE, the effects of affinity purified AChE were analyzed on neuronal (Neuro 2a) and glial-like (B12) cells. LDH release and MTT reduction assays showed that AChE was toxic; the toxicity was dependent on the enzyme concentration, time of incubation and cellular density. The toxic effect of AChE was not related to its catalytic activity, since the anti-cholinesterase drug BW284C51 and heat inactivation were unable to block the effects of the enzyme. When cells were incubated at 4 degrees C, toxicity was completely blocked, in contrast to cells incubated at 37 degrees C. The presence of serum in the culture medium inhibited the toxic effects of AChE. Cytoplasmic shrinkage, condensation and fragmentation of nucleus as well as DNA strand breaks detected with the TUNEL technique indicated that apoptotic cell death is involved in the effect of AChE. Considering that we have previously shown that AChE promotes the assembly of beta-amyloid peptide into neurotoxic amyloid fibrils, it is conceivable that the neurotoxicity of AChE shown here may play a role in the neuronal degeneration observed in Alzheimer's disease.

Responses induced by tacrine in neuronal and non-neuronal cell lines.

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is associated with a reduction in cholinergic activity as a result of specific neuronal loss. Current potential treatments for the disease include both cholinomimetic drugs and anticholinesterase inhibitors. One of the drugs approved by the FDA is tacrine (9-amine-1,2,3,4 tetrahydroacridine; THA), a strong acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitor. We have studied the effects of tacrine on glial and neuronal cells in culture assessing cell survival and viability and morphology. Lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) activity and methylthiazol-diphenyl-tetrazolium (MTT) reduction were used as toxicity indicators. We found that tacrine toxicity on rat B12 glial cells and mouse Neuro 2A cells was strongly dependent on its concentration (up to 500 microM) and time of exposure. The toxic effect was not prevented by serum factors nor by bovine serum albumin. Fluorescein-conjugated phalloidin was used to examine the arrangement of actin filaments at substrate adhesion regions and cell-cell contacts. Primary events following exposure to tacrine included changes in cell morphology, disappearance of actin filament bundles, and disruption of focal adhesion contacts. At concentrations between 10 and 50 microM, tacrine induced neurite outgrowth in Neuro 2A cells, an effect that was not observed in B12 cells, suggesting that certain tacrine effects could be specific for neuronal cells. Although similar trends of response were observed for both cell types, some differences between undifferentiated and differentiated cells were apparent.