A survey of prescribing practices by general dentists in Australia.

BACKGROUND: Numerous studies of dental antibiotic prescribing show that overprescribing is a worldwide occurrence. The aim of this study was to assess prescribing practices of general dentists in Australia for antibiotics, analgesics and anxiolytics and to determine the extent to which prescribing is in accordance with current guidelines. METHODS: A structured questionnaire was sent to 1468 dentists in Victoria and Queensland in July-August 2018. The questionnaire covered demographics, clinical conditions where dentists prescribe antibiotics, non-clinical factors which influence prescribing, and medicines for anxiolysis and pain relief. Responses were scored using a system based on the current Australian therapeutic guidelines. Logistic regression was used to determine the relative importance of independent variables on inappropriate prescribing. RESULTS: Three hundred eighty-two responses were received. Overall, 55% of overprescribing of antibiotics was detected, with a range of 13-88% on a routine or occasional basis depending on the scenario. Between 16 and 27% of respondents inappropriately preferenced analgesics over anti-inflammatories for dental pain; 46% of those who prescribed anxiolytic medicines did so inappropriately, with varying regimens and choices outside the guidelines. Years of practice was the main demographic factor influencing prescribing, with recent graduates (0-5 years) generally scoring better than their colleagues for antibiotic prescribing (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Future interventions could be directed towards the appropriate role and use of antibiotics, shortfalls in knowledge and appropriate choices of medicines for pain relief and anxiolysis. Given that the most overprescribing occurred for localised swellings (88%), this area could be focused on in continuing education as well as ensuring it is addressed in undergraduate teaching. Continuing education on the appropriate use of medicines can be targeted at more experienced dentists as well as patients, especially those who expect antibiotics instead of treatment. TRIAL REGISTRATION: University of Melbourne Human Ethics Sub-Committee; ID: 1750768.1 .

Cultural competence skills in a dental curriculum: A review.

This study aimed to analyse and evaluate the extent of transcultural content in the current curricula of the Doctor of Dental Surgery (DDS), Bachelor of Oral Health (BOH) and Master of Nursing Science (MNSc) courses at the University of Melbourne. METHODS: The study was conducted in two phases: a quantitative review and assessment of the current DDS, BOH and MNSc curricula at the University of Melbourne, and interviews with various staff from the University of Melbourne who were responsible for curriculum development for these courses. RESULTS: Staff from the DDS, BOH and MNSc courses concurred on the importance of transcultural skills, the necessity of covering cultural issues relevant to the main ethnic groups in Australia, obstacles faced and the lack of evaluation methods for cultural competency. The nursing curriculum had the most extensive coverage of transcultural content throughout both years of the course (total 71 formal contact hours; mean 36 formal contact hours per year). In contrast, modules on transcultural skills were limited to the first two of the 3-year BOH course (54 hours; 18 hours) and only the first of the 4-year dental curriculum (40 hours; 10 hours). CONCLUSION: The DDS course showed less time devoted to formal teaching of these concepts compared to the nursing and BOH courses despite showing a noticeable improvement from a previous assessment conducted in 2006. It is hoped that the DDS course continues to further increase the transcultural content and find ways to incorporate more transcultural education.

Development and validation of a computerized algorithm for International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury (ISNCSCI).

STUDY DESIGN: Validation study. OBJECTIVES: To describe the development and validation of a computerized application of the international standards for neurological classification of spinal cord injury (ISNCSCI). SETTING: Data from acute and rehabilitation care. METHODS: The Rick Hansen Institute-ISNCSCI Algorithm (RHI-ISNCSCI Algorithm) was developed based on the 2011 version of the ISNCSCI and the 2013 version of the worksheet. International experts developed the design and logic with a focus on usability and features to standardize the correct classification of challenging cases. A five-phased process was used to develop and validate the algorithm. Discrepancies between the clinician-derived and algorithm-calculated results were reconciled. RESULTS: Phase one of the validation used 48 cases to develop the logic. Phase three used these and 15 additional cases for further logic development to classify cases with 'Not testable' values. For logic testing in phases two and four, 351 and 1998 cases from the Rick Hansen SCI Registry (RHSCIR), respectively, were used. Of 23 and 286 discrepant cases identified in phases two and four, 2 and 6 cases resulted in changes to the algorithm. Cross-validation of the algorithm in phase five using 108 new RHSCIR cases did not identify the need for any further changes, as all discrepancies were due to clinician errors. The web-based application and the algorithm code are freely available at www.isncscialgorithm.com. CONCLUSION: The RHI-ISNCSCI Algorithm provides a standardized method to accurately derive the level and severity of SCI from the raw data of the ISNCSCI examination. The web interface assists in maximizing usability while minimizing the impact of human error in classifying SCI. SPONSORSHIP: This study is sponsored by the Rick Hansen Institute and supported by funding from Health Canada and Western Economic Diversification Canada.

Responsiveness and concurrent validity of the revised capabilities of upper extremity-questionnaire (CUE-Q) in patients with acute tetraplegia.

STUDY DESIGN: This is a longitudinal convenience sample. OBJECTIVE: The objective of this study was to evaluate the responsiveness of the revised Capabilities of Upper Extremity-Questionnaire (CUE-Q), in which the item responses were reduced from seven to five levels, relative to the upper extremity motor score (UEMS) and to the self-care subscale of Functional Independence Measure (FIMsc). METHODS: A total of 46 subjects with acute traumatic tetraplegia, 19 motor complete, 27 motor incomplete, completed the revised CUE-Q, UEMS and FIMsc at admission and discharge from rehabilitation. RESULTS: Subjects were mostly male (n=42) and Caucasian (n=27). The mean age was 44±21 years. Predominant etiologies were falls (n=18) and motor vehicle accidents (n=17). During rehabilitation, mean CUE-Q scores increased from 49.8±30.8 to 73.7±36.3, UEMS increased from 19.6±11.9 to 26.3±13.4, and FIMsc increased from 9.8±5.1 to 21.5±9.7. At admission and discharge, CUE scores had excellent to good Spearman correlations (rs) with UEMS (rs=0.89, 0.70) and FIMsc (rs=0.73, 0.80), but change scores had little to moderate correlations (CUE-UEMS, rs=0.07; CUE-FIMsc, rs=0.51), suggesting that the CUE, UEMS and FIM measure related but different constructs. Effect size of the change score was 0.92 for CUE-Q, 0.87 for UEMS and 1.38 for FIMsc. This compares to an effect size of 0.73 for the original 7-level response CUE-Q. CONCLUSION: The simplified response set of the CUE-Q maintains the responsiveness of the original version, whereas it increases the ease of use for the patient.

Australian/New Zealand Bachelor of Oral Health students: sociodemographics and career decisions.

This article describes the sociodemographic profile and factors affecting career decisions of Bachelor of Oral Health (BOH) students in Australia and New Zealand. Data were collected during the 2009 and 2011 academic years via online. A total of 271 students participated. The majority were female (87.8%), single (74.5%) and of Anglo-Saxon background (59.4%), and the average age was 23.7 years. The majority indicated that their fathers had at least secondary school education. The majority (52.8%) decided to study BOH after high school, and of those who commence after high school, 53.7% worked as a dental assistant/auxiliary. Career selection was self-motivated (70.2%) and a career to 'care for and help other people' (59.6%). Most respondents wished to work in a city (59.8%), in both the public and the private sectors (47.2%). This study represents a comprehensive assessment of BOH student profile in Australia and New Zealand. Findings indicate an overall different BOH student profile compared with other oral health profession students in Australia. A significant proportion had previous employment as a dental auxiliary staff and an increasing number of male students. Findings are relevant to educators, recruitment administrators and policy makers in the way the BOH profession is presented as a career option.

Systematic review of publications on economic evaluations of caries prevention programs.

The aim of this study was to perform a systematic review of economic evaluations (EEs) of dental caries prevention programs to objectively retrieve, synthesize and describe available information on the field. Several strategies were combined to search for literature published between January 1975 and April 2012. MEDLINE, EconoLit and ISI formed the basis of the literature search. The study selection was done using predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria. Bibliographic listings of all retrieved articles were hand-searched. The search identified 206 references. An evaluative framework was developed based on the Centre for Reviews and Dissemination's 'Guidance for undertaking reviews in health care' (York University, 2009). Background information included publication vehicle, year of publication, geographic focus, type of preventive program and type of economic analysis. 63 studies were included in the review. The most common preventive strategies evaluated were dental sealants (n = 13), water fluoridation (n = 12) and mixed interventions (n = 12). By type of EE undertaken, 30 were cost-effectiveness analyses, 22 were cost-benefit analyses, and 5 presented both cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analyses. Few studies were cost-utility analyses (n = 5) or cost minimization analyses (n = 2). By year of publication, most were published after 2003. The review revealed that, although the number of publications reporting EEs has increased significantly in recent years, the quality of the reporting needs to be improved. The main methodological problems identified in the review were the limited information provided on adjustments for discounting in addition to inadequate sensitivity analyses. Attention also needs to be given to the analysis and interpretation of the results of the EEs.

The Walking Index for Spinal Cord Injury (WISCI/WISCI II): nature, metric properties, use and misuse.

STUDY DESIGN: Literature review. OBJECTIVE: To critically review all publications/internet sites that have described/used the Walking Index for Spinal Cord Injury (WISCI II), as a measure of impairment of walking function after spinal cord injury (SCI), in order to identify its psychometric properties, clarify its nature, specify misuse and incorporate the findings in an updated guide. METHOD: A systematic literature search was done of Ovid MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsychINFO, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, Scopus and electronic sites using key words: WISCI or WISCI II, SCI, paraplegia/ tetraplegia/ quadriplegia and ambulation/gait/walking. Among 1235 citations retrieved, 154 relevant articles/sites were identified, classified and examined by the authors; recommendations were made based on findings. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: The validity (face/concurrent/content/construct/convergent/criterion) and reliability of the WISCI II has been documented in clinical trials and clinical series, and considered adequate by systematic reviewers. In chronic SCI subjects, reliable determination of the maximum (as opposed to self-selected) WISCI II level requires more time and experience by the assessor. The correct use of WISCI II is clarified for testing acute/chronic phases of recovery after SCI, age of subjects, devices and settings. The WISCI II and walking speed measures may be performed simultaneously. CONCLUSION: The increased use of the WISCI II is attributed to its unique characteristics as a capacity measure of walking function and its strong metric properties. Appropriate use of the WISCI II was clarified and incorporated into a new guide for its use. Combining it with a walking speed measure needs further study.

Association between the functional independence measure following spinal cord injury and long-term outcomes.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective cohort. OBJECTIVES: To estimate the association between the Functional Independence Measure (FIM) for spinal cord injury (SCI) patients at time of discharge from rehabilitation and long-term resource utilization, residential status and employment. The intention was to assess the value of FIM for projecting economic burden in SCI. SETTING: Federally designated spinal cord injury model system facilities throughout the USA. METHODS: We analyzed data from the National Spinal Cord Injury Statistical Center database (n = 14 620) (1988-2010), excluding subjects with: age < 6 years, normal motor function, death before discharge or etiology from gunshot or penetrating wound (n = 11685 retained). We investigated the association between motor FIM at rehabilitation discharge and residential status, survival and outcomes at 1, 5, 10, 15 and 20 years follow-up, including FIM, residential status, hospitalizations, days hospitalized in previous year, daily paid and total care and paid hours worked. Regression controlled for injury completeness, neurological level, demographic characteristics and temporal effects. RESULTS: All outcomes were statistically associated with higher FIM scores at discharge. Each one-point increment in FIM was associated with improvements in: probability of institution care at discharge (-0.34%) and at follow-up (-0.13%), FIM score at follow-up (0.76 points), hospitalizations and days hospitalized/year (-0.0044 and -0.071, respectively), probability of needing paid assistance (-0.72%) or any assistance (-0.85%) and probability of paid work (0.41%). CONCLUSION: The FIM at discharge has predictive value for long-term outcomes. Improvement in FIM suggests reduced economic burden in SCI patients. SPONSORSHIP: Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation.

Length of stay and medical stability for spinal cord-injured patients on admission to an inpatient rehabilitation hospital: a comparison between a model SCI trauma center and non-SCI trauma center.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective database review. OBJECTIVE: To compare lengths of stay (LOS), pressure ulcers and readmissions to the acute care hospital of patients admitted to the inpatient rehabilitation facility (IRF) from a model spinal cord injury (SCI) trauma center or from a non-SCI acute hospital. BACKGROUND: Only sparse data exist comparing the status of patients admitted to IRF from a model SCI trauma center or from a non-SCI acute hospital. METHODS: Acute care, IRF and total LOS were compared between patients transferred to IRF from the SCI center (n=78) and from non-SCI centers (n=131). The percentages of pressure ulcers on admission to IRF and transfer back to acute care were also compared. RESULTS: Patients admitted to IRF from the SCI trauma center (SCI TC) had significantly shorter (P=0.01) acute care LOS and total LOS compared with patients admitted from non-SCI TCs. By neurological category, acute-care LOS was less for all groups admitted from the SCI center, but statistically significant only for tetraplegia. There was no significant difference in the incidence of readmissions to acute care from IRF. More patients from non-SCI centers (34%) than SCI centers (12%) had pressure ulcers (P<0.001). CONCLUSION: Acute care in organized SCI TCs before transfer to IRF can significantly lower acute-care LOS or total LOS and incidence of pressure ulcers compared with non-SCI TCs. Patients admitted to IRF from SCI TCs are no more likely to be sent back to an acute hospital than those from non-SCI TCs.

Consumer preference in ranking walking function utilizing the walking index for spinal cord injury II.

STUDY DESIGN: Blinded rank ordering. OBJECTIVE: To determine consumer preference in walking function utilizing the walking Index for spinal cord injury II (WISCI II) in individuals with spinal cord injury (SCI)from the Canada, the Italy and the United States of America. METHOD: In all, 42 consumers with incomplete SCI (25 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar) from Canada (12/42), Italy (14/42) and the United States of America (16/42) ranked the 20 levels of the WISCI II scale by their individual preference for walking. Subjects were blinded to the original ranking of the WISCI II scale by clinical scientists. Photographs of each WISCI II level used in a previous pilot study were randomly shuffled and rank ordered. Percentile, conjoint/cluster and graphic analyses were performed. RESULTS: All three analyses illustrated consumer ranking followed a bimodal distribution. Ranking for two levels with physical assistance and two levels with a walker were bimodal with a difference of five to six ranks between consumer subgroups (quartile analysis). The larger cluster (N=20) showed preference for walking with assistance over the smaller cluster (N=12), whose preference was walking without assistance and more devices. In all, 64% (27/42) of consumers ranked WISCI II level with no devices or braces and 1 person assistance higher than multiple levels of the WISCI II requiring no assistance. These results were unexpected, as the hypothesis was that consumers would rank independent walking higher than walking with assistance. CONCLUSION: Consumer preference for walking function should be considered in addition to objective measures in designing SCI trials that use significant improvement in walking function as an outcome measure.

Extent of spontaneous motor recovery after traumatic cervical sensorimotor complete spinal cord injury.

STUDY DESIGN: Retrospective, longitudinal analysis of motor recovery data from individuals with cervical (C4-C7) sensorimotor complete spinal cord injury (SCI) according to the International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury (ISNCSCI). OBJECTIVES: To analyze the extent and patterns of spontaneous motor recovery over the first year after traumatic cervical sensorimotor complete SCI. METHODS: Datasets from the European multicenter study about SCI (EMSCI) and the Sygen randomized clinical trial were examined for conversion of American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Impairment Scale (AIS) grade, change in upper extremity motor score (UEMS) or motor level, as well as relationships between these measures. RESULTS: There were no overall differences between the EMSCI and Sygen datasets in motor recovery patterns. After 1 year, up to 70% of subjects spontaneously recovered at least one motor level, but only 30% recovered two or more motor levels, with lesser values at intermediate time points. AIS grade conversion did not significantly influence motor level changes. At 1 year, the average spontaneous improvement in bilateral UEMS was 10-11 motor points. There was only moderate relationship between a change in UEMS and a change in cervical motor level (r(2)=0.30, P<0.05). Regardless of initial cervical motor level, most individuals recover a similar number of motor points or motor levels. CONCLUSION: Careful tracking of cervical motor recovery outcomes may provide the necessary sensitivity and accuracy to reliably detect a subtle, but meaningful treatment effect after sensorimotor complete cervical SCI. The distribution of the UEMS change may be more important functionally than the total UEMS recovered.

Oral health status and inequalities among ambulant older adults living in central Chile.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the oral health status and treatment needs of older adults, living in the Valparaiso Region of Chile. BASIC RESEARCH DESIGN: A random sample of 354 older adults, aged 60 years or older, living independently in the community were examined orally by calibrated examiners and underwent a structured oral health interview. Data collection extended from October 2006 to June 2007. RESULTS: This was a largely dentate population (80%) with a mean DMFT score of 21.6 (s.d. 5.7). While about 28% of the dentate sample had all their restorative needs unmet, 30.8% had all of their restorative needs met. Regarding periodontal health, 3.3% had sound periodontum; complex periodontal therapy (CPI 3-4) was needed by 43.1% of the sample. CONCLUSION: This study represents one of the largest data collections in oral health among older adults living in Chile. Participants seemed to have better oral health status than previously reported. Of particular relevance is the reduction of the decayed component and the increased number of sound teeth in the present sample. Participants also presented lower need for advance periodontal treatment. Yet, inequalities were apparent in the proportion of unmet restorative needs. Strategies to develop oral health care programmes focused on improving access to and use of preventive services for older adults are critical. Further research is indicated to get a more complete picture of the factors that shape the oral health of Chilean older adults.

A web-based computer program to determine the ASIA impairment classification.

OBJECTIVE: To develop an interactive computer program that facilitates uniformity and accuracy in the collection and assessment of spinal cord-impairment data. DESIGN: A computer program that captures and processes clinical examination information in graphical form using the 2002 American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) guidelines. This program calculates motor and sensory level, neurological level, the ASIA impairment scale (AIS) grade and zone of partial preservation. PARTICIPANTS/METHODS: The International Standards for Neurological Classification of Spinal Cord Injury (ISNCSCI) were encoded and a graphic representation of the standard ASIA data-capturing form (with permission) was produced using Adobe Flash programming technology by the Division of Multimedia at the University of Saskatchewan. RESULTS: Testing by the development team has been successful in producing accurate ASIA-impairment data. CONCLUSION: Adapting the ISNCSCI system to a computer-generated format is possible and will promote uniformity in the collection and interpretation of impairment data. This program can also be used to educate health-care personnel, including residents and medical students, on classifying the impairment in traumatic spinal cord injury.

Part 1. Current prescribing trends of antibiotics by dentists in Australia from 2013 to 2016.

BACKGROUND: Literature has shown dentists tend to overprescribe antibiotics and do not always prescribe in accordance with recommended guidelines. Unnecessary prescribing is one major factor that contributes to the development of antibiotic resistance. The aim of the present study was to assess the antibacterial prescribing patterns of dentists in Australia from 2013 to 2016. METHODS: Data on dental antibacterial prescriptions dispensed under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) from 2013 to 2016 was accessed and prescribing trends analysed. The prescribing rates were standardized to the dose and population. RESULTS: There was a slight decrease in the dispensed use of most antibacterials from 2013 to 2016, but there was a significant increase in the dispensed use of amoxicillin/clavulanic acid of 11.2%. Amoxicillin was the most commonly dispensed antibiotic, accounting for approximately 65% of all antibacterials from 2013 to 2016, while phenoxymethylpenicillin accounted for only 1.4% of prescriptions in 2016. There were low but significant quantities of dispensed antibiotic prescriptions that do not fit with current guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: The data suggest that dentists in Australia are prescribing some antibiotics inappropriately and there is a preference for moderate- to broad-spectrum agents. The current PBS dental schedule is inconsistent with prescribing guidelines and may contribute to inappropriate prescribing.

Part 2. Current prescribing trends of dental non-antibacterial medicines in Australia from 2013 to 2016.

BACKGROUND: There is limited literature regarding dental prescribing preferences for medicines other than antibiotics. This study aimed to describe the prescribing trends of dispensed prescription medicines by dentists in Australia from 2013 and 2016 and assess adherence to current guidelines. METHODS: Data were accessed from the Department of Health of all dental prescriptions dispensed under the Pharmaceutical Benefits Scheme (PBS) from 2013 to 2016 and prescribing patterns were analysed. The prescribing rates were standardized to the dose and population. RESULTS: There was an overall increase in the standardized use of opioid analgesics by almost 30% over the time frame, with the combination paracetamol 500 mg plus codeine 30 mg tablet accounting for the majority of dispensed opioid prescriptions (96.2% in 2016). Dispensed benzodiazepine prescriptions increased by 14.6%. CONCLUSIONS: The increase in the consumption of opioids is concerning, suggesting that continuing education is required for dentists to better understand their limited role in managing dental pain and potential for abuse. The substantial increase in the dispensed use of benzodiazepines also requires further investigation and there were some drugs prescribed inappropriately and not in accordance with guidelines. Consideration could also be given to reviewing the drugs listed on the PBS for dental prescribing.

Economic Evaluation of a Pilot School-Based Dental Checkup Program.

The objectives of this study were to perform an economic evaluation of a targeted school-based dental checkup program in northern metropolitan Melbourne, Victoria. A 12-mo retrospective case-control cohort analysis using the decision tree method evaluated the incremental cost-utility and cost-effectiveness ratio (ICUR/ICER) for passive standard care dental services and an outreach pilot intervention completed in 2013. A societal perspective was adopted. A total of 273 children ( n = 273) aged between 3 and 12 y met the inclusion/exclusion criteria: 128 in the standard care group and 145 in the intervention group. The total society costs included health sector costs, patient/family costs, and productivity losses in 2014 Australian dollars. Outcome measures were evaluated using quality-adjusted tooth years (QATY) and the combined deciduous and permanent decayed, missing, and filled teeth prevented (DMFT-prevented). A generic outcome variable was created to determine the impact of the intervention to reach underserved populations based on government concession eligibility (cardholder status). Uncertainties were incorporated using 95% confidence intervals. The mean total society cost per child is $463 and $291 ( P = 0.002), QATY utility difference is 0.283 and 0.293 ( P = 0.937), effectiveness difference is 0.16 and 0.10 ( P = 0.756), and cardholder status is 50.0% and 66.2% ( P = 0.007), respectively, for the standard care and intervention groups. On average per child, there was a cost saving of $172 and improvement of 0.01 QATY, with an additional proportion of 16.2% of cardholder children reached. The calculated ICER was $3,252 per DMFT-prevented. The intervention dominates standard care for QATY and per 1% cardholder reached outcome measures. Our study found the pilot checkup program was largely less costly and more effective compared with the current standard care. Further research is needed to quantify the value of outreach interventions to prevent dental caries development and progression in populations from low socioeconomic status. Knowledge Transfer Statement: The findings of this research demonstrated that an outreach dental program can be less costly and more effective than standard models of dental care. It showed that a school-based dental checkup program is beneficial despite other opinions that dental screening is ineffective as a method to improve public dental health. There is fiscal economic evidence to support broader expansion of similar programs locally and internationally to reduce dental caries for children from low-income families.

Molar incisor hypomineralisation (MIH) training manual for clinical field surveys and practice.

BACKGROUND: Despite clear assessment criteria, studies of molar incisor hypomineralisation (MIH) and hypomineralised second primary molars (HSPM) are marked by inconsistency in outcome measurements. This has detracted from meaningful comparisons between studies and limited interpretation. AIM: To provide a comprehensive manual as a companion to assist researchers in planning epidemiological studies of MIH and HSPM, with particular reference to outcome measurement. METHODS: This manual begins with a succinct review of the clinical problems and evidence for management of the conditions. The subsequent sections guide researchers through diagnosis of MIH and HSPM and implementation of both the long and short forms of a recently proposed grading system. MIH and HSPM can often be confused with fluorosis, enamel hypoplasia, amelogenesis imperfecta, and white spot lesions but can be distinguished by a number of unique clinical features. Based on the grading system, a standardised protocol is proposed for clinical examinations. Intra and inter-examiner reliability is of key importance when outcome measurement is subjective and should be reported in all epidemiological studies of MIH. The manual concludes with an exercise forum aimed to train examiners in the use of the grading system, with answers provided. CONCLUSION: The use of a standardised protocol, diagnostic and grading criteria will greatly enhance the quality of epidemiological studies of MIH.

Cultural aspects of ageing and health promotion.

The emphasis of Australian Government policy is on the promotion of good health in later life and positive experiences with ageing. Conceptually, a new gerontology framework has replaced the study of disease, decline, loss and disability. Within this framework, health promotion offers a mechanism by which individuals can be assisted to create environments that offer better opportunities for continued participation in society and improved quality of health and self-care. Oral health is instrumental to older people's health, life satisfaction, quality of life and perception of self. Australia is culturally diverse, composed of numerous ethno-cultural groups coexisting within a larger, predominant culture, creating a multicultural and multiracial society. However, despite this cultural diversity, the well documented ageing profile of the Australian population and repeated calls for comprehensive geriatric assessment, the oral health of older adults remains a challenge for oral health providers and for society. A major challenge will be to translate existing knowledge and experience of disease prevention and health promotion into appropriate programmes for older adults. Health promotion is the key to improving oral health in later life as it encourages older adults to be proactive in regard to their health. Therefore, increased efforts should be directed towards identifying opportunities for health promotion activities and the development of community based models that encourage older people to improve and maintain their oral health. Ignoring opportunities for health promotion may increase inequalities in oral health and may lead to even greater demands for curative and oral rehabilitative services from these groups This article firstly provides a brief rationale for oral health promotion. Its second part explores the influence of culture on health beliefs, behaviours and outcomes in older adults and how oral health can relate to cultural background. The last section presents the results of an oral health promotion programme for older adults.

Motor power differences within the first two weeks post-SCI in cervical spinal cord-injured quadriplegic subjects.

The purpose of this study was to confirm the clinical impression that motor power significantly changed within the first 2 weeks after a spinal cord injury (SCI) and to determine the time for motor power assessment within the first 2 weeks post injury that best correlated with motor power determined 6 months post-SCI. Our hypothesis was that within the first 2 weeks postinjury, the manual muscle test (MMT) scores would change significantly from the < or = 24 h examination and that the post-24 h evaluations of strength would have a higher correlation with the 6 month measure of motor outcome than the evaluation of strength performed < or = 24 h after SCI. The biceps, extensor carpi radialis, triceps, flexor digitorum profundus, and interosseous muscle strength was measured in 40 subjects using the MMT (muscles graded 0/5 to 5/5) at < or = 24 h, 72 h, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 months, and 6 months post-SCI. Upper extremity motor index scores (MIS) obtained at the four testing periods within 2 weeks of injury were analyzed using a Friedman analysis of variance with Duncan's post-hoc tests to identify significant differences. Separate analyses were performed on subgroupings of the total sample based on the strength of the most rostral key muscle having less than antigravity strength. There were three groups evaluated: initial MMT 0/5 (n = 22), initial MMT 1-1.5/5 (n = 17), and initial MMT 2-2.5/5 (n = 13).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Wrist strength measured by myometry as an indicator of functional independence.

The purpose of this study was to show that independence of self care activities of motor complete quadriplegic patients related better to the force of contraction of the wrist extensor (WE) muscles measured by a hand held myometer than to the manual muscle test (MMT) for grades 3 to 5. The patients (n = 24), identified by having unilaterally or bilaterally functional WE muscle (MMT > or = 3/5) with bilateral elbow extensor (EE) muscles < 3/5, were evaluated at 2 to 6 months after injury for four feeding activities utilizing the Quadriplegia Index of Function (QIF). We found 54% were independent drinking from a cup, 58% using a spoon or fork, 13% cutting food, and 23% pouring liquids. Comparisons were made between right, left, and bilateral mean myometry scores and median MMT scores for each of the QIF activities. The independent group of patients had myometry scores 54 to 140% greater (p < 0.05) than those patients dependent in the self care activity except when the right or left WE myometric score was analyzed for cutting food (p = 0.1). MMT comparisons showed no significant median score differences in any activity performed. There were no patients with only one WE muscle > or = 3/5 (n = 9) who were able to cut food or pour liquids independently. In conclusion, myometry appeared to be a better indicator than the MMT for some self care activities evaluated utilizing the Quadriplegia Index of Function.