The protein bcl-2 alpha does not require membrane attachment, but two conserved domains to suppress apoptosis.

Bcl-2 is a mitochondrial- and perinuclear-associated protein that prolongs the lifespan of a variety of cell types by interfering with programmed cell death (apoptosis). Bcl-2 seems to function in an antioxidant pathway, and it is believed that membrane attachment mediated by a COOH-terminal hydrophobic tail is required for its full activity. To identify critical regions in bcl-2 alpha for subcellular localization, activity, and/or interaction with other proteins, we created, by site-directed mutagenesis, various deletion, truncation, and point mutations. We show here that membrane attachment is not required for the survival activity of bcl-2 alpha. A truncation mutant of bcl-2 alpha lacking the last 33 amino acids (T3.1) including the hydrophobic COOH terminus shows full activity in blocking apoptosis of nerve growth factor-deprived sympathetic neurons or TNF-alpha-treated L929 fibroblasts. Confocal microscopy reveals that the T3 mutant departs into the extremities of neurites in neurons and filopodias in fibroblasts. Consistently, T3 is predominantly detected in the soluble fraction by Western blotting, and is not inserted into microsomes after in vitro transcription/translation. We further provide evidence for motifs (S-N and S-II) at the NH2 and COOH terminus of bcl-2, which are crucial for its activity.

Identification of CARDIAK, a RIP-like kinase that associates with caspase-1.

Members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor (TNFR) superfamily have an important role in the induction of cellular signals resulting in cell growth, differentiation and death. TNFR-1 recruits and assembles a signaling complex containing a number of death domain (DD)-containing proteins, including the adaptor protein TRADD and the serine/threonine kinase RIP, which mediates TNF-induced NF-kappa B activation. RIP also recruits caspase-2 to the TNFR-1 signaling complex via the adaptor protein RAIDD, which contains a DD and a caspase-recruiting domain (CARD). Here, we have identified a RIP-like kinase, termed CARDIAK (for CARD-containing interleukin (IL)-1 beta converting enzyme (ICE) associated kinase), which contains a serine/threonine kinase domain and a carboxy-terminal CARD. Overexpression of CARDIAK induced the activation of both NF-kappa B and Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). CARDIAK interacted with the TNFR-associated factors TRAF-1 and TRAF-2, and a dominant-negative form of TRAF-2 inhibited CARDIAK-induced NF-kappa B activation. Interestingly, CARDIAK specifically interacted with the CARD of caspase-1 (previously known as ICE), and this interaction correlated with the processing of pro-caspase-1 and the formation of the active p20 subunit of caspase-1. Together, these data suggest that CARDIAK may be involved in NF-kappa B/JNK signaling and in the generation of the proinflammatory cytokine IL-1 beta through activation of caspase-1.

Interaction of Fas(Apo-1/CD95) with proteins implicated in the ubiquitination pathway.

Fas(Apo-1/CD95), a receptor belonging to the tumor necrosis factor receptor family, induces apoptosis when triggered by Fas ligand. Upon its activation, the cytoplasmic domain of Fas binds several proteins which transmit the death signal. We used the yeast two-hybrid screen to isolate Fas-associated proteins. Here we report that the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme UBC9 binds to Fas at the interface between the death domain and the membrane-proximal region of Fas. This interaction is also seen in vivo. UBC9 transiently expressed in HeLa cells bound to the co-expressed cytoplasmic segment of Fas. FAF1, a Fas-associated protein that potentiates apoptosis (Chu et al. (1996) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 92, 11894-11898), was found to contain sequences similar to ubiquitin. These results suggest that proteins related to the ubiquitination pathway may modulate the Fas signaling pathway.

Cytolytic T-cell cytotoxicity is mediated through perforin and Fas lytic pathways.

The recent generation of perforin knock-out mice has demonstrated a crucial role for the pore-forming perforin in cytolytic T-lymphocyte (CTL)-mediated cytolysis. Perforin-deficient mice failed to clear lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus in vivo, yet substantial killing activity still remained in perforin-free CTLs in vitro, indicating the presence of (a) further lytic pathway(s). Fas is an apoptosis-signalling receptor molecule on the surface of a number of different cells. Here we report that both perforin-deficient and Fas-ligand-deficient CTLs show impaired lytic activity on all target cells tested. The killing activity was completely abolished when both pathways were inactivated by using target cells from Fas-receptor-deficient lpr mice and perforin-free CTL effector cells. Fas-ligand-based killing activity was triggered upon T-cell receptor occupancy and was directed to the cognate target cell. Thus, two complementary, specific cytotoxic mechanisms are functional in CTLs, one based on the secretion of lytic proteins and one which depends on cell-surface ligand-receptor interaction.

Dissection of functional domains in Bcl-2 alpha by site-directed mutagenesis.

Bcl-2 alpha is a mitochondrial or perinuclear-associated oncoprotein that prolongs the life span of a variety of cell types by interfering with programmed cell death. How Bcl-2 confers cell survival is unknown, although antioxidant and antiprotease functions have been proposed. In addition, protein structures of Bcl-2 that are crucial for its survival activity are still ill-defined. Bcl-2 can occur as Bcl-2 alpha or Bcl-2 beta, two alternatively spliced forms which solely differ in their carboxyl termini. The finding that Bcl-2 alpha is active and membrane bound, but Bcl-2 beta is inactive and cytosolic, indicates that the carboxyl terminus contributes to the survival activity of Bcl-2. This region contains two subdomains, a domain X with unknown function and a hydrophobic stretch reported to mediate membrane association of Bcl-2 alpha. Recently Bcl-2-related proteins have been identified. These include Bax that heterodimerizes with Bcl-2 and, when overexpressed, counteracts Bcl-2. Bax contains two highly conserved regions of sequence homology with Bcl-2, referred to as Bcl-2 homology 1 and 2 (BH1 and BH2) domains. Site-directed mutagenesis studies have revealed that both domains are not only novel dimerization motifs for the interaction of Bax with Bcl-2 but also crucial for the survival activity of Bcl-2. Interestingly, the C-terminal end of BH2 encompasses the Bcl-2 alpha/beta splice site, as well as part of domain X in Bcl-2 alpha.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Characterization of Fas (Apo-1, CD95)-Fas ligand interaction.

The death-inducing receptor Fas is activated when cross-linked by the type II membrane protein Fas ligand (FasL). When human soluble FasL (sFasL, containing the extracellular portion) was expressed in human embryo kidney 293 cells, the three N-linked glycans of each FasL monomer were found to be essential for efficient secretion. Based on the structure of the closely related lymphotoxin alpha-tumor necrosis factor receptor I complex, a molecular model of the FasL homotrimer bound to three Fas molecules was generated using knowledge-based protein modeling methods. Point mutations of amino acid residues predicted to affect the receptor-ligand interaction were introduced at three sites. The F275L mutant, mimicking the loss of function murine gld mutation, exhibited a high propensity for aggregation and was unable to bind to Fas. Mutants P206R, P206D, and P206F displayed reduced cytotoxicity toward Fas-positive cells with a concomitant decrease in the binding affinity for the recombinant Fas-immunoglobulin Fc fusion proteins. Although the cytotoxic activity of mutant Y218D was unaltered, mutant Y218R was inactive, correlating with the prediction that Tyr-218 of FasL interacts with a cluster of three basic amino acid side chains of Fas. Interestingly, mutant Y218F could induce apoptosis in murine, but not human cells.

Equine herpesvirus-2 E10 gene product, but not its cellular homologue, activates NF-kappaB transcription factor and c-Jun N-terminal kinase.

We have previously reported on the death effector domain containing E8 gene product from equine herpesvirus-2, designated FLICE inhibitory protein (v-FLIP), and on its cellular homologue, c-FLIP, which inhibit the activation of caspase-8 by death receptors. Here we report on the structure and function of the E10 gene product of equine herpesvirus-2, designated v-CARMEN, and on its cellular homologue, c-CARMEN, which contain a caspase-recruiting domain (CARD) motif. c-CARMEN is highly homologous to the viral protein in its N-terminal CARD motif but differs in its C-terminal extension. v-CARMEN and c-CARMEN interact directly in a CARD-dependent manner yet reveal different binding specificities toward members of the tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor (TRAF) family. v-CARMEN binds to TRAF6 and weakly to TRAF3 and, upon overexpression, potently induces the c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), p38, and nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB transcriptional pathways. c-CARMEN or truncated versions thereof do not appear to induce JNK and NF-kappaB activation by themselves, nor do they affect the JNK and NF-kappaB activating potential of v-CARMEN. Thus, in contrast to the cellular homologue, v-CARMEN may have additional properties in its unique C terminus that allow for an autonomous activator effect on NF-kappaB and JNK. Through activation of NF-kappaB, v-CARMEN may regulate the expression of the cellular and viral genes important for viral replication.

Three human elastase-like genes coordinately expressed in the myelomonocyte lineage are organized as a single genetic locus on 19pter.

The human neutrophil and monocyte-derived serine protease homologues neutrophil elastase (NE), proteinase 3 (PR3), and azurocidin (AZU) are involved in a variety of immune defense reactions. NE and PR3 assist in the destruction of phagocytosed microorganisms, cleave the important connective-tissue protein elastin, and generate chemotactic activities by forming alpha 1-proteinase inhibitor complexes and elastin peptides. AZU is cytotoxic to certain microorganisms and chemotactic for monocytes. All three proteins are produced and packaged into azurophil granules in large quantities during neutrophil differentiation. We have isolated several cosmid clones each of which contains the functional genes for AZU, PR3, and NE in this order. The PR3 gene is separated by 8 kilobases from the 3' end of the AZU gene and by 3 kilobases from the 5' end of the NE gene. We report a physical map of the gene cluster, its location on chromosome 19pter, and the exon-intron organization of the AZU and PR3 genes. Our fluorescence in situ hybridization studies disprove the previous chromosomal assignment of the human NE gene to 11q14. The five exons of AZU and PR3 are organized like those of NE and other granule-associated serine proteases of hematopoietic cells. NE, PR3, and AZU are coordinately downregulated in the premonocytic cell line U937 during induced terminal differentiation. The cluster-like physical organization of these genes and concerted regulation during hematopoietic differentiation suggests that they are located in a developmentally activated chromatin domain promoting high-level, cell-specific expression in the monocyte-myelocyte lineage.

Inhibition of death receptor signals by cellular FLIP.

The widely expressed protein Fas is a member of the tumour necrosis factor receptor family which can trigger apoptosis. However, Fas surface expression does not necessarily render cells susceptible to Fas ligand-induced death signals, indicating that inhibitors of the apoptosis-signalling pathway must exist. Here we report the characterization of an inhibitor of apoptosis, designated FLIP (for FLICE-inhibitory protein), which is predominantly expressed in muscle and lymphoid tissues. The short form, FLIPs, contains two death effector domains and is structurally related to the viral FLIP inhibitors of apoptosis, whereas the long form, FLIP(L), contains in addition a caspase-like domain in which the active-centre cysteine residue is substituted by a tyrosine residue. FLIPs and FLIP(L) interact with the adaptor protein FADD and the protease FLICE, and potently inhibit apoptosis induced by all known human death receptors. FLIP(L) is expressed during the early stage of T-cell activation, but disappears when T cells become susceptible to Fas ligand-mediated apoptosis. High levels of FLIP(L) protein are also detectable in melanoma cell lines and malignant melanoma tumours. Thus FLIP may be implicated in tissue homeostasis as an important regulator of apoptosis.

Viral FLICE-inhibitory proteins (FLIPs) prevent apoptosis induced by death receptors.

Viruses have evolved many distinct strategies to avoid the host's apoptotic response. Here we describe a new family of viral inhibitors (v-FLIPs) which interfere with apoptosis signalled through death receptors and which are present in several gamma-herpesviruses (including Kaposi's-sarcoma-associated human herpesvirus-8), as well as in the tumorigenic human molluscipoxvirus. v-FLIPs contain two death-effector domains which interact with the adaptor protein FADD, and this inhibits the recruitment and activation of the protease FLICE by the CD95 death receptor. Cells expressing v-FLIPs are protected against apoptosis induced by CD95 or by the related death receptors TRAMP and TRAIL-R. The herpesvirus saimiri FLIP is detected late during the lytic viral replication cycle, at a time when host cells are partially protected from CD95-ligand-mediated apoptosis. Protection of virus-infected cells against death-receptor-induced apoptosis may lead to higher virus production and contribute to the persistence and oncogenicity of several FLIP-encoding viruses.