Child lead exposure near abandoned lead acid battery recycling sites in a residential community in Bangladesh: Risk factors and the impact of soil remediation on blood lead levels.

Lead is a potent neurotoxin that is particularly detrimental to children's cognitive development. Batteries account for at least 80% of global lead use and unsafe battery recycling is a major contributor to childhood lead poisoning. Our objectives were to assess the intensity and nature of child lead exposure at abandoned, informal used lead acid battery (ULAB) recycling sites in Kathgora, Savar, Bangladesh, as well as to assess the feasibility and effectiveness of a soil remediation effort to reduce exposure. ULAB recycling operations were abandoned in 2016 due to complaints from residents, but the lead contamination remained in the soil after operations ceased. We measured soil and blood lead levels (BLLs) among 69 children living within 200 m of the ULAB recycling site once before, and twice after (7 and 14 months after), a multi-part remediation intervention involving soil capping, household cleaning, and awareness-raising activities. Due to attrition, the sample size of children decreased from 69 to 47 children at the 7-month post-intervention assessment and further to 25 children at 14 months. We conducted non-parametric tests to assess changes in soil lead levels and BLLs. We conducted baseline surveys, as well as semi-structured interviews and observations with residents throughout the study period to characterize exposure behaviors and the community perceptions. We conducted bivariate and multivariate regression analyses of exposure characteristics to determine the strongest predictors of baseline child BLLs. Prior to remediation, median soil lead concentrations were 1400 mg/kg, with a maximum of 119,000 mg/kg and dropped to a median of 55 mg/kg after remediation (p < 0.0001). Among the 47 children with both baseline and post-intervention time 1 measurements, BLLs dropped from a median of 21.3 µg/dL to 17.0 µg/dL at 7 months (p < 0.0001). Among the 25 children with all three measurements, BLLs dropped from a median of 22.6 µg/dL to 14.8 µg/dL after 14 months (p < 0.0001). At baseline, distance from a child's residence to the nearest abandoned ULAB site was the strongest predictor of BLLs and baseline BLLs were 31% higher for children living within 50 m from the sites compared to those living further away (n = 69, p = 0.028). Women and children spent time in the contaminated site daily and relied on it for their livelihoods and for recreation. Overall, this study highlights the intensity of lead exposure associated with the ULAB recycling industry. Additionally, we document the feasibility and effectiveness of a multi-part remediation intervention at a contaminated site embedded within a residential community; substantially reducing child BLLs and soil lead concentrations.

Risk factors for children's blood lead levels in metal mining and smelting communities in Armenia: a cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Children's exposure to lead poses a significant risk for neurobehavioral consequences. Existing studies documented lead contamination in residential soil in mining and smelting communities in Armenia. This study aimed to assess blood lead levels (BLL) in children living in three communities in Armenia adjacent to metal mining and smelting industries, and related risk factors. METHODS: This cross-sectional study included 159 children born from 2007 to 2009 and living in Alaverdi and Akhtala communities and Erebuni district in Yerevan - the capital city. The BLL was measured with a portable LeadCare II Blood Lead Analyzer; a survey was conducted with primary caregivers. RESULTS: Overall Geometric Mean (GM) of BLL was 6.0 µg/dl: 6.8 for Akhtala, 6.4 for Alaverdi and 5.1 for Yerevan. In the sample 68.6 % of children had BLL above CDC defined reference level of 5 µg/dl: 83.8 % in Akhtala, 72.5 % in Alaverdi, and 52.8 % in Yerevan. Caregiver's lower education, dusting furniture less than daily, and housing distance from toxic source(s) were risk factors for higher BLL. Additional analysis for separate communities demonstrated interaction between housing distance from toxic source(s) and type of window in Erebuni district of Yerevan. CONCLUSIONS: The study demonstrated that children in three communities adjacent to metal mining and smelting industries were exposed to lead. Investigation of the risk factors suggested that in addition to promoting safe industrial practices at the national level, community-specific interventions could be implemented in low- and middle-income countries to reduce BLL among children.

Rapid Market Screening to assess lead concentrations in consumer products across 25 low- and middle-income countries.

Lead exposure can have serious consequences for health and development. The neurological and behavioral effects of lead are considered irreversible. Young children are particularly vulnerable to lead poisoning. In 2020, Pure Earth and UNICEF estimated that one in three children had elevated blood lead levels above 5 µg/dL. The sources of lead exposure vary around the world and can range from household products, such as spices or foodware, to environmental pollution from nearby industries. The aim of this study was to analyze common products from markets in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) for their lead content to determine whether they are plausible sources of exposure. In 25 LMICs, the research teams systematically collected consumer products (metal foodware, ceramics, cosmetics, paints, toys, spices and other foods). The items were analyzed on site for detectable lead above 2 ppm using an X-ray fluorescence analyzer. For quality control purposes, a subset of the samples was analyzed in the USA using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. The lead concentrations of the individual product types were compared with established regulatory thresholds. Out of 5007 analyzed products, threshold values (TV) were surpassed in 51% for metal foodware (TV 100 ppm), 45% for ceramics (TV 100 ppm), and 41% for paints (TV 90 ppm). Sources of exposure in LMICs can be diverse, and consumers in LMICs lack adequate protection from preventable sources of lead exposure. Rapid Market Screening is an innovative, simple, and useful tool to identify risky products that could be sources of lead exposure.

A meta-analysis of blood lead levels in India and the attributable burden of disease.

Multiple studies in India have found elevated blood lead levels (BLLs) in target populations. However the data have not yet been evaluated to understand population-wide exposure levels. We used arithmetic mean blood lead data published from 2010 to 2018 on Indian populations to calculate the average BLLs for multiple subgroups. We then calculated the attributable disease burden in IQ decrement and Disability Adjusted Life Years (DALYs). Our Pubmed search yielded 1066 articles. Of these, 31 studies representing the BLLs of 5472 people in 9 states met our study criteria. Evaluating these, we found a mean BLL of 6.86 µg/dL (95% CI: 4.38-9.35) in children and 7.52 µg/dL (95% CI: 5.28-9.76) in non-occupationally exposed adults. We calculated that these exposures resulted in 4.9 million DALYs (95% CI: 3.9-5.6) in the states we evaluated. Population-wide BLLs in India remain elevated despite regulatory action to eliminate leaded petrol, the most significant historical source. The estimated attributable disease burden is larger than previously calculated, particularly with regard to associated intellectual disability outcomes in children. Larger population-wide BLL studies are required to inform future calculations. Policy responses need to be developed to mitigate the worst exposures.

The prevalence of toxic hotspots in former Soviet countries.

Using a global database of contaminated sites, toxic hotspots in eight former Soviet countries were analyzed to identify the prevalence, types and sources of toxic pollution, as well as their associated potential public health impacts. For this analysis, polluted sites in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Uzbekistan were compiled and analyzed. The levels of contamination of seven key pollutants were assessed in each country. 424 contaminated sites were identified using data from Blacksmith Institute. Pesticides, lead (Pb), radioactive metals, arsenic (As), mercury (Hg), chromium (Cr), and cadmium (Cd) were the most commonly identified key pollutants. Collectively, these sites pose health risks to an estimated 6.2 million residents. The existing data on toxic hotspots in former Soviet countries likely captures only a small percentage of actual contaminated sites, but suggests potentially severe public health consequences. Additional assessments are needed to understand the risks posed by toxic pollution in the region.