Biodistribution and Multicompartment Pharmacokinetic Analysis of a Targeted α Particle Therapy.

Targeted α particle therapy (TAT) is ideal for treating disease while minimizing damage to surrounding nontargeted tissues due to short path length and high linear energy transfer (LET). We developed a TAT for metastatic uveal melanoma, targeting the melanocortin-1 receptor (MC1R), which is expressed in 94% of uveal melanomas. Two versions of the therapy are being investigated: 225Ac-DOTA-Ahx-MC1RL (225Ac-Ahx) and 225Ac-DOTA-di-d-Glu-MC1RL (225Ac-di-d-Glu). The biodistribution (BD) from each was studied and a multicompartment pharmacokinetic (PK) model was developed to describe drug distribution rates. Two groups of 16 severe combined immunodeficient (SCID) mice bearing high MC1R expressing tumors were intravenously injected with 225Ac-Ahx or 225Ac-di-d-Glu. After injection, four groups (n = 4) were euthanized at 24, 96, 144, and 288 h time points for each cohort. Tumors and 13 other organs were harvested at each time point. Isomeric γ spectra were measured in tissue samples using a scintillation γ detector and converted to α activity using factors for γ ray abundance per α decay. Time activity curves were calculated for each organ. A five-compartment PK model was built with the following compartments: blood, tumor, normal tissue, kidney, and liver. This model is characterized by a system of five ordinary differential equations using mass action kinetics, which describe uptake, intercompartmental transitions, and clearance rates. The ordinary differential equations were simultaneously solved and fit to experimental data using a genetic algorithm for optimization. The BD data show that both compounds have minimal distribution to organs at risk other than the kidney and liver. The PK parameter estimates had less than 5% error. From these data, 225Ac-Ahx showed larger and faster uptake in the liver. Both compounds had comparable uptake and clearance rates for other compartments. The BD and PK behavior for two targeted radiopharmaceuticals were investigated. The PK model fit the experimental data and provided insight into the kinetics of the compounds systematically.

Development of Targeted Alpha Particle Therapy for Solid Tumors.

Targeted alpha-particle therapy (TAT) aims to selectively deliver radionuclides emitting α-particles (cytotoxic payload) to tumors by chelation to monoclonal antibodies, peptides or small molecules that recognize tumor-associated antigens or cell-surface receptors. Because of the high linear energy transfer (LET) and short range of alpha (α) particles in tissue, cancer cells can be significantly damaged while causing minimal toxicity to surrounding healthy cells. Recent clinical studies have demonstrated the remarkable efficacy of TAT in the treatment of metastatic, castration-resistant prostate cancer. In this comprehensive review, we discuss the current consensus regarding the properties of the α-particle-emitting radionuclides that are potentially relevant for use in the clinic; the TAT-mediated mechanisms responsible for cell death; the different classes of targeting moieties and radiometal chelators available for TAT development; current approaches to calculating radiation dosimetry for TATs; and lead optimization via medicinal chemistry to improve the TAT radiopharmaceutical properties. We have also summarized the use of TATs in pre-clinical and clinical studies to date.

Tetra-methyl anthracene-2,3,6,7-tetra-carboxyl-ate-tetra-methyl 9,10-dihydro-9,10-dioxoanthracene-2,3,6,7-tetra-carboxyl-ate (1/1).

In the title co-crystal, C(22)H(16)O(10)·C(22)H(18)O(8), the independent tetra-methyl 9,10-dihydro-9,10-dioxoanthracene-2,3,6,7-tetra-carboxyl-ate, (I), and tetra-methyl anthracene-2,3,6,7-tetra-carboxyl-ate, (II), components occupy separate crystallographic inversion centers. In (II), the dihedral angles between the mean aromatic plane and the two independent carboxyl-ate planes are 41.32 (10) and -38.35 (10)°. The methyl-carboxyl-ate groups of (I) are disordered, with each resolvable into two groups. In the least disordered carboxyl-ate, the apparent angles between the mean aromatic plane and the two partial carboxyl-ate planes [site occupations = 0.510 (3) and 0.490 (3)] are 16.8 (3) and 23.3 (3)°. In the highly disordered group, the apparent angles between the mean aromatic plane and the two partial carboxyl-ate planes [site occupations = 0.510 (3) and 0.490 (3)] are 78.3 (3) and -74.1 (3)°. In addition, this extreme disorder leads to an artificially elongated C(aromatic)-C(carbox-yl) bond.

1,2-Dihydro-9H-carbazole-4(3H)-thione.

The crystal structure of the title compound, C(12)H(11)NS, features parallel chains of alternating N-H⋯S hydrogen-bonded mirror-image conformers along [10[Formula: see text]]. The mol-ecular conformation is that of an envelope, with all of the framework atoms except one close to a mean plane (rms deviation 0.054 Å); one C atom of the cyclo-hexene-thione ring forms the envelope flap, which makes a dihedral angle of 48.6 (1)° with the rest of the mol-ecule. There is a π-π* inter-action between pairs of enanti-omers in adjacent chains; the distance between parallel planes is 3.466 (1) Å.

Bioactivity improvement via display of the hydrophobic core of HYD1 in a cyclic ß-hairpin-like scaffold, MTI-101.

HYD1 is an all D-amino acid linear 10-mer peptide that was discovered by one-bead-one-compound screening. HYD1 has five hydrophobic amino acids flanked by polar amino acids. Alanine scanning studies showed that alternating hydrophobic amino acid residues and N- and C-terminal lysine side chains were contributors to the biological activity of the linear 10-mer analogs. This observation led us to hypothesize that display of the hydrophobic pentapeptide sequence of HYD1 in a cyclic beta-hairpin-like scaffold could lead to better bioavailability and biological activity. An amphipathic pentapeptide sequence was used to form an antiparallel strand and those strands were linked via dipeptide-like sequences selected to promote ß-turns. Early cyclic analogs were more active but otherwise mimicked the biological activity of the linear HYD1 peptide. The cyclic peptidomimetics were synthesized using standard Fmoc solid phase synthesis to form linear peptides, followed by solution phase or on-resin cyclization. SAR studies were carried out with an aim to increase the potency of these drug candidates for the killing of multiple myeloma cells in vitro. The solution structures of 1, 5, and 10 were elucidated using NMR spectroscopy. 1H NMR and 2D TOCSY studies of these peptides revealed a downfield Hα proton chemical shift and 2D NOE spectral analysis consistent with a ß-hairpin-like structure.

Lipophilicity Determines Routes of Uptake and Clearance, and Toxicity of an Alpha-Particle-Emitting Peptide Receptor Radiotherapy.

Lipophilicity is explored in the biodistribution (BD), pharmacokinetics (PK), radiation dosimetry (RD), and toxicity of an internally administered targeted alpha-particle therapy (TAT) under development for the treatment of metastatic melanoma. The TAT conjugate is comprised of the chelator DOTA (1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetate), conjugated to melanocortin receptor 1 specific peptidic ligand (MC1RL) using a linker moiety and chelation of the 225Ac radiometal. A set of conjugates were prepared with a range of lipophilicities (log D 7.4 values) by varying the chemical properties of the linker. Reported are the observations that higher log D 7.4 values are associated with decreased kidney uptake, decreased absorbed radiation dose, and decreased kidney toxicity of the TAT, and the inverse is observed for lower log D 7.4 values. Animals administered TATs with lower lipophilicities exhibited acute nephropathy and death, whereas animals administered the highest activity TATs with higher lipophilicities lived for the duration of the 7 month study and exhibited chronic progressive nephropathy. Changes in TAT lipophilicity were not associated with changes in liver uptake, dose, or toxicity. Significant observations include that lipophilicity correlates with kidney BD, the kidney-to-liver BD ratio, and weight loss and that blood urea nitrogen (BUN) levels correlated with kidney uptake. Furthermore, BUN was identified as having higher sensitivity and specificity of detection of kidney pathology, and the liver enzyme alkaline phosphatase (ALKP) had high sensitivity and specificity for detection of liver damage associated with the TAT. These findings suggest that tuning radiopharmaceutical lipophilicity can effectively modulate the level of kidney uptake to reduce morbidity and improve both safety and efficacy.

Facile iterative synthesis of 2,5-terpyrimidinylenes as nonpeptidic alpha-helical mimics.

A facile iterative synthesis of 2,5-terpyrimidinylenes that are structurally analogous to alpha-helix mimics is presented. Condensation of amidines with readily prepared alpha,beta-unsaturated alpha-cyanoketones gives 5-cyano-substituted pyrimidines. Iterative transformation of the 5-cyano group into an amidine allows synthesis of 2,5-terpyrimidinylenes with variable groups at the 4-, 4'-, and 4''-positions. These compounds are designed to mimic the i, i + 4, and i + 7 sites of an alpha-helix.

Efficient assembly of 2,5,6-substituted pyrimidines via MgI(2)-mediated Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction.

A mild and efficient protocol for the synthesis of a 2,6-disubstituted pyrimidine-5-carboxylate library via a Morita-Baylis-Hillman (MBH) adduct is described. Herein, the three step methodology involves the use of substituted alpha-iodomethylene beta-keto ester intermediates obtained after oxidation of the MBH adducts, which are condensed with various types of amidine or guanidine derivatives, to generate the 2, 6-disubstituted pyrimidines-5-carboxylate libraries.

(S)-(Z)-Methyl 2-[2,3-bis-(benzyl-oxy-carbon-yl)guanidino]-4-methyl-penta-no-ate.

The title mol-ecule, C(24)H(29)N(3)O(6), has a nearly planar ten-atom C(3)N(3)O(4) core, on account of both N-H groups forming six-membered-ring intra-molecular hydrogen bonds to carbamate carbonyl O atoms. The absolute configuration was determined from resonant scattering of light atoms in Mo Kα radiation, agreeing with the configuration of starting materials.

Identification of a disruptor of the MDM2-p53 protein-protein interaction facilitated by high-throughput in silico docking.

NSC 333003 has been identified from the NCI Diversity Set as an inhibitor of the MDM2-p53 protein-protein interaction by in silico docking (virtual screening). Its potency and chemical characteristics render it well suited for lead optimization studies that can result in more potent analogs with improved drug-like properties. Its synthesis was achieved using an acid catalyzed condensation reaction from commercially available benzothiazole hydrazine and pyridyl phenyl ketone in refluxing methanol. Stereochemical implications for this compound are described.

Melanocortin 1 Receptor-Targeted α-Particle Therapy for Metastatic Uveal Melanoma.

New effective therapies are greatly needed for metastatic uveal melanoma, which has a very poor prognosis with a median survival of less than 1 y. The melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) is expressed in 94% of uveal melanoma metastases, and a MC1R-specific ligand (MC1RL) with high affinity and selectivity for MC1R was previously developed. Methods: The 225Ac-DOTA-MC1RL conjugate was synthesized in high radiochemical yield and purity and was tested in vitro for biostability and for MC1R-specific cytotoxicity in uveal melanoma cells, and the lanthanum-DOTA-MC1RL analog was tested for binding affinity. Non-tumor-bearing BALB/c mice were tested for maximum tolerated dose and biodistribution. Severe combined immunodeficient mice bearing uveal melanoma tumors or engineered MC1R-positive and -negative tumors were studied for biodistribution and efficacy. Radiation dosimetry was calculated using mouse biodistribution data and blood clearance kinetics from Sprague-Dawley rat data. Results: High biostability, MC1R-specific cytotoxicity, and high binding affinity were observed. Limiting toxicities were not observed at even the highest administered activities. Pharmacokinetics and biodistribution studies revealed rapid blood clearance (<15 min), renal and hepatobillary excretion, MC1R-specific tumor uptake, and minimal retention in other normal tissues. Radiation dosimetry calculations determined pharmacokinetics parameters and absorbed α-emission dosages from 225Ac and its daughters. Efficacy studies demonstrated significantly prolonged survival and decreased metastasis burden after a single administration of 225Ac-DOTA-MC1RL in treated mice relative to controls. Conclusion: These results suggest significant potential for the clinical translation of 225Ac-DOTA-MC1RL as a novel therapy for metastatic uveal melanoma.

Molecular docking/dynamics studies of Aurora A kinase inhibitors.

The binding modes of a known 1,4,5,6-tetrahydropyrrolo[3,4-c]pyrazole, quinazoline, pyrimidine and indolinone series of Aurora A kinase inhibitors have been studied using molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. Crystallographic bound compound 8 was precisely predicted by our docking procedure as evident from 0.43A root mean square (rms) deviations. In addition compound 25 (AZ_68) has been successfully cross-docked within the Aurora A kinase active site, which was pre-organized for inhibitor 8. We found four key sites (A: solvent-exposed front pocket, B: hinge region, C: selectivity pocket and D: solvent-exposed phosphate binding region) of the Aurora A kinase contributing towards the binding of these compounds. We suggest that the small hydrophobic substituents at C-6 position of pyrrolopyrazole nucleus (in compounds 1-8); C-6 and C-7 positions of the quinazoline moiety (in compounds 9-23); C-2 position of the quinazoline and C-4 position of the pyrimidine (in compound 25) could be more effective and selective through increased hydrophobic contacts and selectivity pocket interactions with these modifications of Aurora A kinase inhibitors. Five representative complexes were subjected to 1,000ps of MD simulation to determine the stability of the predicted binding conformations. The low value of the root mean square deviations (ranging from 0.725 to 1.820A) between the starting complex structure and the energy minimized final average complex structure suggests that the Glide Extra Precision (XP) derived docked complexes are in a state of near equilibrium. The structure-based drug design strategy described in this study will be highly useful for the development of new inhibitors with high potency and selectivity.

Photophysical studies of the trans to cis isomerization of the push-pull molecule: 1-(pyridin-4-yl)-2-(N-methylpyrrol-2-yl)ethene (mepepy).

Organic molecules possessing intramolecular charge-transfer properties (D-pi-A type molecules) are of key interest particularly in the development of new optoelectronic materials as well as photoinduced magnetism. One such class of D-pi-A molecules that is of particular interest contains photoswitchable intramolecular charge-transfer states via a photoisomerizable pi-system linking the donor and acceptor groups. Here we report the photophysical and electronic properties of the trans to cis isomerization of 1-(pyridin-4-yl)-2-(N-methylpyrrol-2-yl)ethene ligand (mepepy) in aqueous solution using photoacoustic calorimetry (PAC) and theoretical methods. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations demonstrate a global energy difference between cis and trans isomers of mepepy to be 8 kcal mol(-1), while a slightly lower energy is observed between the local minima for the trans and cis isomers (7 kcal mol(-1)). Interestingly, the trans isomer appears to exhibit two ground-state minima separated by an energy barrier of approximately 9 kcal mol(-1). Results from the PAC studies indicate that the trans to cis isomerization results in a negligible volume change (0.9 +/- 0.4 mL mol(-1)) and an enthalpy change of 18 +/- 3 kcal mol(-1). The fact that the acoustic waves associated with the trans to cis transition of mepepy overlap in frequency with those of a calorimetric reference implies that the conformational transition occurs faster than the approximately 50 ns response time of the acoustic detector. Comparison of the experimental results with theoretical studies provide evidence for a mechanism in which the trans to cis isomerization of mepepy results in the loss of a hydrogen bond between a water molecule and the pyridine ring of mepepy.

Structure and properties of DOTA-chelated radiopharmaceuticals within the 225Ac decay pathway.

The successful delivery of toxic cargo directly to tumor cells is of primary importance in targeted (α) particle therapy. Complexes of radioactive atoms with the 1,4,7,10-tetraazacyclododecane-1,4,7,10-tetraacetic acid (DOTA) chelating agent are considered as effective materials for such delivery processes. The DOTA chelator displays high affinity to radioactive metal isotopes and retains this capability after conjugation to tumor targeting moieties. Although the α-decay chains are well defined for many isotopes, the stability of chelations during the decay process and the impact of released energy on their structures remain unknown. The radioactive isotope 225Ac is an α-particle emitter that can be easily chelated by DOTA. However, 225Ac has a complex decay chain with four α-particle emissions during decay of each radionuclide. To advance our fundamental understanding of the consequences of α-decay on the stability of tumor-targeted 225Ac-DOTA conjugate radiopharmaceuticals, we performed first principles calculations of the structure, stability, and electronic properties of the DOTA chelator to the 225Ac radioactive isotope, and the initial daughters in the decay chain, 225Ac, 221Fr, 217At and 213Bi. Our calculations show that the atomic positions, binding energies, and electron localization functions are affected by the interplay between spin-orbit coupling, weak dispersive interactions, and environmental factors. Future empirical measurements may be guided and interpreted in light of these results.

The development of molecular clamps as drugs.

Some enzymes catalyze the modification of an ensemble of substrates in vivo and, as a consequence, are not ideal targets for active-site-directed drugs. One solution to inhibiting such multisubstrate enzymes would be a drug that binds tightly to only one substrate, which prevents the binding of that substrate to the enzyme. Ideally, such a drug (called a molecular clamp, a molecular forcep or a molecular tweezer) would prevent the enzymatic processing of only the targeted substrate. This would enable the enzyme to function normally on all other substrates. Here, we review the unique steady-state kinetic features of molecular clamp inhibition, identify potential targets for molecular clamp inhibition, and discuss problems for the therapeutic use of molecular clamps.

MTI-101 (cyclized HYD1) binds a CD44 containing complex and induces necrotic cell death in multiple myeloma.

Our laboratory recently reported that treatment with the d-amino acid containing peptide HYD1 induces necrotic cell death in multiple myeloma cell lines. Because of the intriguing biological activity and promising in vivo activity of HYD1, we pursued strategies for increasing the therapeutic efficacy of the linear peptide. These efforts led to a cyclized peptidomimetic, MTI-101, with increased in vitro activity and robust in vivo activity as a single agent using two myeloma models that consider the bone marrow microenvironment. MTI-101 treatment similar to HYD1 induced reactive oxygen species, depleted ATP levels, and failed to activate caspase-3. Moreover, MTI-101 is cross-resistant in H929 cells selected for acquired resistance to HYD1. Here, we pursued an unbiased chemical biology approach using biotinylated peptide affinity purification and liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry analysis to identify binding partners of MTI-101. Using this approach, CD44 was identified as a predominant binding partner. Reducing the expression of CD44 was sufficient to induce cell death in multiple myeloma cell lines, indicating that multiple myeloma cells require CD44 expression for survival. Ectopic expression of CD44s correlated with increased binding of the FAM-conjugated peptide. However, ectopic expression of CD44s was not sufficient to increase the sensitivity to MTI-101-induced cell death. Mechanistically, we show that MTI-101-induced cell death occurs via a Rip1-, Rip3-, or Drp1-dependent and -independent pathway. Finally, we show that MTI-101 has robust activity as a single agent in the SCID-Hu bone implant and 5TGM1 in vivo model of multiple myeloma.

Acquisition of resistance toward HYD1 correlates with a reduction in cleaved α4 integrin expression and a compromised CAM-DR phenotype.

We recently reported that the ß1 integrin antagonist, referred to as HYD1, induces necrotic cell death in myeloma cell lines as a single agent using in vitro and in vivo models. In this article, we sought to delineate the determinants of sensitivity and resistance toward HYD1-induced cell death. To this end, we developed an HYD1 isogenic resistant myeloma cell line by chronically exposing H929 myeloma cells to increasing concentrations of HYD1. Our data indicate that the acquisition of resistance toward HYD1 correlates with reduced levels of the cleaved α4 integrin subunit. Consistent with reduced VLA-4 (α4ß1) expression, the resistant variant showed ablated functional binding to fibronectin, VCAM-1, and the bone marrow stroma cell line HS-5. The reduction in binding of the resistant cell line to HS-5 cells translated to a compromised cell adhesion-mediated drug resistant phenotype as shown by increased sensitivity to melphalan- and bortezomib-induced cell death in the bone marrow stroma coculture model of drug resistance. Importantly, we show that HYD1 is more potent in relapsed myeloma specimens than newly diagnosed patients, a finding that correlated with α4 integrin expression. Collectively, these data indicate that this novel d-amino acid peptide may represent a good candidate for pursuing clinical trials in relapsed myeloma and in particular patients with high levels of α4 integrin. Moreover, our data provide further rationale for continued preclinical development of HYD1 and analogues of HYD1 for the treatment of multiple myeloma and potentially other tumors that home and/or metastasize to the bone.