Psychometric Validation of the Tactical Assessment Instrument in Football for Use in Physical Education and with Youth Sport Teams.

Recently, the Tactical Assessment Instrument in Football (TAIS) was developed to address football's tactical requirements in terms of game phases, learners' roles, and organizational levels of play. In this study, we sought to evaluate the psychometric properties of this existing instrument in the Physical Education (PE) context and for youth sport teams (ages 8-12 years). Our research design involved: (a) participants playing 37 football games, (b) assessing participants via observation with the TAIS and (c) conducting psychometric analysis on the obtained assessment data. For the psychometric analysis, we carried out our work in four phases: (a) a statistical analysis of the evaluation criteria, (b) analysis of the instrument's structural dimensions, (c) internal item reliability analysis, and (d) provision of evidence for external validity. Participants were 592 children (156 girls, 436 boys; ages 8-12 years) from 74 PE classes or sport teams (from three institutional contexts - schools, community-based sports, and sports clubs) in Spain. We selected 12 tactical criteria and grouped them into four theoretical dimensions (appropriate attack, inappropriate attack, appropriate defense, inappropriate defense) to confirm the instrument's structural dimensions. The Cronbach alpha and Omega McDonald coefficients were greater than .70. The TAIS discriminated between participants from the three institutional contexts, offering evidence of the instrument's external validity. Thus, the TAIS now has sufficient psychometric support for assessing learning of football tactics in PE and youth sport teams. This instrument facilitates an ecological assessment of youth players' understanding of football tactics through four theoretical tactical dimensions and 12 criteria involving information about four learners' roles (both attack and defense, on- and off-the-ball) and three organizational tactical levels of play (whole team, small groups of learners, and individual learners).

A mobile app-based intervention improves anthropometry, body composition and fitness, regardless of previous active-inactive status: a randomized controlled trial.

Introduction: The use of mobile apps to promote physical activity in adolescents can improve health-related parameters. However, previous studies have not evaluated whether the benefits depend on the users' prior active or inactive status. Therefore, the main objective was to analyze differences in physical activity levels, adherence to the Mediterranean diet (AMD), anthropometry, body composition, and physical fitness between active and inactive adolescents. Methods: The study was conducted through a randomized controlled trial (RCT) with 462 adolescents, divided into experimental (EG) and control groups (CG), further categorized as active and inactive. Variables of physical activity, kinanthropometry, body composition, and physical fitness were measured before (pre-test) and after (post-test) a 10-week intervention using step-tracking apps (Strava, Pacer, MapMyWalk, and PokémonGo) at least three times per week. Results: The results showed that inactive EG adolescents significantly increased their physical activity levels, body mass, and muscle mass, and improved in all fitness variables except the countermovement jump (CMJ). The sum of three skinfolds also significantly decreased. Active EG adolescents increased body and muscle mass and improved in all fitness variables. Additionally, they significantly reduced fat mass and the sum of three skinfolds. All covariates, mainly gender and maturity, had significant effects on the study variables. Comparing changes between the active EG and CG groups, significant differences were found in body mass index (BMI) and CMJ in favor of the EG. However, while significant differences were observed in the study variables when analyzing each app individually, there were no differences between the changes produced by each app in these variables. Conclusion: After a 10-week program of physical activity promoted through step-tracking apps, improvements were observed in fat variables, cardiorespiratory fitness, and curl-up performance. Furthermore, only inactive adolescents perceived an increase in their level of physical activity. The measurement protocol was registered prior to the start of the intervention at ClinicalTrials.gov (code: NCT04860128).

Gender equity in sport from the perspective of European women athletes and sport managers, physical education teachers and sport coaches.

Introduction: For years, gender inequality has conditioned women's participation in sport, exposing them to difficult situations and numerous barriers to face. However, no previous research has analyzed the situation of women in sport from the perspective of the athletes themselves, or from the perspective of the coaches, teachers or managers who work with them. Methods: This study examines the perspectives of European women athletes, sports managers, physical education teachers, and sports coaches, on gender equity in sports across six European countries: Greece, Ireland, Italy, Portugal, Spain, and Turkey. The research design was consistent with a critical realist epistemology, and the sampling method was non-probabilistic by convenience. A total of 42 female athletes (mean age: 24.37 ± 8.27 years old; mean sport experience: 6.67 ± 7.76 years) and 45 sports managers, physical education teachers or coaches (mean age: 47.00 ± 11.99 years old; mean sport experience: 9.62 ± 10.60 years), participated in six focus groups in the same countries, in groups of 6 to 10 participants per focus group. Focus groups were conducted to stimulate collective discussions, build upon and question ideas, and reach a consensus on questions drawn up by a group of experts, following previous methodologies. The data analysis involved transcribing, translating, and contextualizing the focus group recordings into English. Inductive thematic analysis, reflexive thematic analysis, and codes and themes within the data were created using NVivo 12 Pro. Results: The main topics discussed by the female athletes were "gender inequality in general and in sport," "barriers to gender equity," "reasons for abandonment," "needs," "environment role models" and "tools for the gender equity in sport." The main topics discussed by the sports managers, physical education teachers, and coaches were "gender inequality in general," "gender inequality in sports," "tools" and "reasons, motives, drivers." The results of the study revealed that gender inequality in sports is influenced by a broader social context, where stereotypes, biases, and discrimination persist. The participants also highlighted the challenges, barriers, and needs that women athletes face in their careers, such as a lack of resources, support, visibility, and recognition. Moreover, the participants suggested some strategies to promote gender equity in sports, such as increasing investment, awareness, and education, creating policies and legislation, fostering women's leadership and role modeling, and developing mixed and inclusive sports projects. Discussion: According to athletes and sports managers/teachers/coaches, gender inequality is still present in sport. There are barriers and challenges that need to be addressed such as lack of resources, visibility, and recognition for female athletes. Among the strategies that can be used to reverse this situation are increasing investment, awareness, and education, creating policies and legislation, fostering women's leadership, and developing mixed and inclusive sport projects.

Teaching Games for Understanding in Game Performance and Psychosocial Variables: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Control Trial.

Different authors have reported on the influence of the Teaching Games for Understanding (TGfU) intervention on game performance and psychosocial variables. This review aimed: (a) to explore the TGfU experimental studies; (b) to compare the effects of the TGfU vs. technical approach pedagogy on game performance; and (c) to determine the effect of the TGfU approach on game performance and psychosocial variables (motivational climate, task orientation, perceived competence and enjoyment). This systematic review with meta-analysis adheres to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. Four databases (PubMed, WOS, EBSCO and Google scholar metasearch) were searched. Study quality was measured with the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) score. Thirteen studies were included. A pooled analysis of all interventions demonstrated a large significant improvement in decision making for TGfU when compared to technical approach pedagogy (SMD = 5.93, I2 = 98%; CI (95%) = 2.15-9.71; p = 0.004) and no differences between groups for skill execution (SMD = 1.70; I2 = 8%; CI (95%) = -5.34-8.73; p = 0.60). The effect of a TGfU intervention on game performance is strong (decision making, execution skills and tactical skills). Moderate evidence is reported by psychosocial variables (motivational climate, task orientation, perception of motivation and achievement in physical education). In addition, it is unclear its effect on perceived competence, enjoyment, knowledge of the game and intention to be physically active. TGfU intervention could be an appropriate approach for males and females in the context of education or sport. There is a need for a greater number of studies.

Exploring the perception of barriers to a dual career by student-athletes with/out disabilities.

In recent years, there has been an increase in knowledge about the barriers experienced by people with disabilities in the education system or sports. However, no studies have analyzed the barriers for those who try to succeed in both disciplines (dual career). The purpose of this study was to examine the barriers faced by student-athletes with/out disability to a dual career combining studies and sport. Two groups were involved in the study (n = 162): student-athletes with disabilities (n = 79) and student-athletes without disabilities (n = 83). Data collected included: (a) socio-demographic aspects; and (b) barriers towards achieving a good balance between sport and academics during the dual career, through the "Perceptions of dual career student-athletes" (ESTPORT) questionnaire. The results showed that student-athletes with disabilities were more likely to perceive in a greater extent the barriers, the university is far from my home (p = 0.007) and the university is far from my training site (p = 0.006), I find myself unable to balance study and training time (p = 0.030), I have to take care of my family (p<0.001), and my current job does not allow me to study enough (p<0.001). The MANOVA analysis showed that the factors gender, competitive level, and employment status had an influence on the perception of some barriers between groups. In conclusion, student-athletes with disabilities perceived barriers more strongly than those without disabilities, and measures are needed to ensure their inclusion in the education system.

Spanish Pre-Olympic Athletes' Motivations and Barriers to Pursuing Dual Career as a Function of Sociodemographic, Sport and Academic Variables.

The dual career allows elite athletes to attain their maximum competitive and academic performance, but the COVID-19 pandemic hindered their development and changed their perception of the importance given to the sporting and educational environment. For this reason, the aim of the present study was to determine the differences in the motivations and perceived barriers, the importance given to academic qualifications, and the perception of the dual career from a multifactorial perspective, of elite athletes according to sex, type of sport practiced, job performance, time of sports career, type of athlete, and type of scholarship received. A total of 100 student-athletes participated in the research study by completing the "Perceptions of dual career student-athletes" questionnaire. The results showed that athletes from individual modalities (p = 0.012) and those who did not receive any scholarships described more barriers (p < 0.001). In addition, women studied more because they enjoyed it (p = 0.007); athletes from individual modalities studied to work later (p = 0.008); athletes who do not work perceived a greater influence between study and sports performance (p = 0.029); at the beginning and at the best stage of their sports career, a greater influence of academics on performance was perceived (p = 0.016); and athletes who considered themselves professionals, and athletes who did not receive any scholarships (p = 0.025), reported that the conciliation between sports and academic life was difficult (p = 0.034). The results obtained point to the importance of dual career scholarships for student-athletes, as well as the need for the programs implemented for these athletes to consider sex, sport modality or type of scholarship granted.

Exploring dual career quality implementation at European higher education institutions: Insights from university experts.

INTRODUCTION: This paper examines the convergence of the opinions of European higher education institution (HEI) experts on possible implementation of dual career policies and provision areas at university level. METHODS: An online 32-item questionnaire encompassing 26 dual career aspects collected the opinion of European HEI experts as the last phase of a Delphi method preceded by i) focus groups with student-athletes who aimed to identify needs for dual careers and ii) a workshop with 21 dual career experts to generate the statements to be included in the survey. Seventy-one HEI experts from 12 EU member states participated in the survey, rating each dual career aspect identified in previous phases. RESULTS: The relative position of each aspect has been plotted based on relevance (x-axis) and feasibility (y-axis). The Quadrant IV of the resulting scatterplots identified the following nine aspects rated as highly relevant and highly feasible for implementation: tutorship/mentorship, psychological support, programmes based on integration of academic departments and sports services, and adaptable programmes to the needs of each student-athletes (assistance/tutorship area), individual study plans and distance learning (curricula requirements area), publicity for student-athletes and initiatives for increasing the awareness of student-athletes and knowledge of dual career issues (social support area), and access to educational facilities (logistic support area). DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS: The HEI experts' views represent a coherent and useful starting point to develop a deep understanding of the considered 26 aspects founded on a phenomenological lifeworld-led approach and emphasizes the need for a minimum standard for dual career policies and provisions.

Understanding dual career views of European university athletes: The more than gold project focus groups.

Previous studies have found that student-athletes (S-As) have difficulties in achieving dual career (DC) success. However, no studies have analysed the opinion of the S-As on the functioning of DC with a qualitative methodology. The aim of the present work was to collect the opinions of elite university S-As in relation to DC policy adopted by their academic institutions in different European countries. In total, 77 athletes (F = 35, M = 42; age range: 20-25 years) participated in 15 national face-to-face focus groups in five different countries, to discuss aspects that higher education institutes should implement in relation to: 1) the athletes' needs; 2) assistance/tutorship: 2) curricula requirements; 3) financial support; 4) logistic support; 5) social support; and 6) dual career policies. Fifty of the athletes competed in individual sports and twenty-seven team sports. Of them, 57 was enrolled at undergraduate, 17 was enrolled in a master and 3 in a PhD. The athletes were presented with 13 open-ended questions one by one, and were ensured freedom to interact. All the discussions were recorded. After this, a general discussion took place in which the participants identified and agreed on a final list of statements from their focus group deemed to be relevant to DC athletes as university students. Then, at a consensus meeting, the findings were combined, repetitions were eliminated, and fragmented statements were condensed into broader ones. A final list of 31 statements, organized in six related content units, were identified in relation to the athletes' needs (n = 5), assistance/tutorship (n = 5), curricula requirements (n = 4), financial support (n = 4), logistic support (n = 4), social support (n = 6), and DC policies (n = 3), respectively. In conclusion, this cross-national qualitative research study synthesized the S-As views about their needs and the most relevant DC policies and provisions that higher education institutes should provide to ensure them with positive academic experiences towards the achievement of a degree.

Dual Careers of Athletes During COVID-19 Lockdown.

This study aimed to investigate the student-athletes' capability to face the academic, sport, and social challenges during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdown and to disclose novel aspects of dual careers. A 32-item online survey encompassing demographic characteristics, sport and university engagement, support and dual-career benefits, physical activity, sitting time, and the time deemed necessary to recover the previous level of performance was developed. Four hundred sixty-seven student-athletes (males: 57%, females: 43%) from 11 countries, competing in 49 different sports (individual: 63.4%, team: 36.6%) at regional (17.5%), national (43.3%), and international (39.2%) levels, and enrolled at high school (21.9%) and university (78.1%) levels completed the survey. During the lockdown, the respondents decreased the time dedicated to sport and academics, although they maintained an active lifestyle. Student-athletes from countries under severe contagion were more likely to train at home, dedicate to academics, and receive support from the coach but less likely receive support from their teachers. With respect to their team sport counterparts, athletes competing in individual sports trained more and were more likely to receive support from their coaches. International athletes showed the highest training time and support from their coaches and as student-athletes. High school students received more support from their coaches and teachers, whereas university students were more likely considering dual careers useful to cope with the COVID-19 pandemic. This study substantiates the relevant role of competitive sports participation in the maintenance of active lifestyles, with student-athletes considering home training and e-learning valuable resources during the lockdown. Furthermore, their sport and academic commitments helped student-athletes cope with the emergency of the COVID-19 pandemic.

Effect of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) on Elite Spanish Student-Athletes' Perception of the Dual Career.

The aim of the present research was to assess elite student-athletes' perception of the dual career during the lockdown caused by the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, compared with a group of elite student-athletes who could develop their dual career under normal conditions. A total of 150 elite athletes who were also undergraduate or postgraduate students self-completed the "Perceptions of dual career student-athletes (ESTPORT)" questionnaire. From them, 78 did it during the mandatory lockdown period due to the state of emergency caused by COVID-19 (COVID-19 group) and 72 completed it in the previous year to Rio 2016 Olympic Games (control group). The COVID-19 group was found to spend a significantly higher number of hours per week studying, while no significant differences were observed between groups in any training time variable. Student-athletes of the COVID-19 group showed better perception of whether their sport career could help them cope with their academic career and better general perception of remote learning and the use of tasks and videoconferencing as learning support tools. A lower percentage of athletes of the COVID-19 group than of the control group wished to continue with their sport career once they finished their studies. To conclude, student-athletes of the COVID-19 group show adaptations with regard to the organization of their studies and the importance they give to them and to the services provided by dual-career programs, compared with student-athletes from an ordinary pre-Olympic year. In general, student-athletes' perception of the dual career is very positive.