Effects of Cycling vs. Running Training on Endurance Performance in Preparation for Inline Speed Skating.

Winter weather conditions restrict regular sport-specific endurance training in inline speed skating. As a result, this study was designed to compare the effects of cycling and running training programs on inline speed skaters' endurance performance. Sixteen (8 men, 8 women) high-level athletes (mean ± SD 24 ± 8 years) were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 groups (running and cycling). Both groups trained twice a week for 8 weeks, one group on a treadmill and the other on a cycle ergometer. Training intensity and duration was individually calculated (maximal fat oxidation: ∼52% of V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak: 500 kcal per session). Before and after the training intervention, all athletes performed an incremental specific (inline speed skating) and 1 nonspecific (cycling or running) step test according to the group affiliation. In addition to blood lactate concentration, oxygen uptake (V[Combining Dot Above]O2), ventilatory equivalent (VE/V[Combining Dot Above]O2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), and heart rate were measured. The specific posttest revealed significantly increased absolute V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak values (2.9 ± 0.4, 3.4 ± 0.7, p = 0.01) and submaximal V[Combining Dot Above]O2 values (p ≤ 0.01). VE/V[Combining Dot Above]O2 and RER significantly decreased at maximal (46.6 ± 6.6, 38.5 ± 3.4, p = 0.005; 1.1 ± 0.03, 1.0 ± 0.04, p = 0.001) and submaximal intensities (p ≤ 0.04). None of the analysis revealed a significant group effect (p ≥ 0.15). The results indicate that both cycling vs. running exercise at ∼52% of V[Combining Dot Above]O2peak had a positive effect on the athletes' endurance performance. The increased submaximal V[Combining Dot Above]O2 values indicate a reduction in athletes' inline speed skating technique. Therefore, athletes would benefit from a focus on technique training in the subsequent period.

Effects of Cycling Versus Running Training on Sprint and Endurance Capacity in Inline Speed Skating.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of running versus cycling training on sprint and endurance capacity in inline speed skating. Sixteen elite athletes (8 male, 8 female, 24 ± 8 yrs) were randomly assigned into 2 training groups performing either 2 session per week of treadmill running or ergometer cycling in addition to 3 skating specific sessions (technique, plyometrics, parkour) for 8 weeks. Training intensity was determined within non-specific (cycling or running) and effects on specific endurance capacity within a specific incremental exercise test. Before and after the intervention all athletes performed a specific (300m) and one non-specific (30s cycling or 200m running) all-out sprint test according to the group affiliation. To determine the accumulation of blood lactate (BLa) and glucose (BGL) 20 µl arterialized blood was drawn at rest, as well as in 1 min intervals for 10 min after the sprint test. The sport-specific peak oxygen uptake (VO2 peak) was significantly increased (+17%; p = 0.01) in both groups and highly correlated with the sprint performance (r = -0.71). BLa values decreased significantly (-18%, p = 0.02) after the specific sprint test from pre to post-testing without any group effect. However, BGL values only showed a significant decrease (-2%, p = 0.04) in the running group. The close relationship between aerobic capacity and sprint performance in inline speed skating highlights the positive effects of endurance training. Although both training programs were equally effective in improving endurance and sprint capacities, the metabolic results indicate a faster recovery after high intensity efforts for all athletes, as well as a higher reliance on the fat metabolism for athletes who trained in the running group. Key pointsIn addition to a highly developed aerobic performance inline speed skaters also require a highly trained anaerobic capacity to be effective in the sprint sections such as the mass start, tactical attacks and finish line sprint.An 8-week low-intensity endurance training program of either cycling or running training combined with additional routine training improves classical aerobic characteristics (17% increase of VO2 peak), as well as values for acceleration and speed.Athletes who trained in the running group demonstrated a higher reliance on the fat metabolism in the sport-specific post-testing.The significant reduction in anaerobic ATP turnover during repeated sprints appears to be partially compensated by an increase in VO2 in subsequent sprint. The results revealed a close relationship between the aerobic capacity and sprint performance in inline speed skating.

Exercise-induced changes in EEG alpha power depend on frequency band definition mode.

In the majority of studies investigating cortical alpha oscillations the alpha frequency is defined as a fixed band thus, neglecting recommendations in the EEG literature to adjust the alpha band according to the individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF). Based on our previous findings indicating exhaustive exercise induces an increase of the post-exercise iAPF, we scrutinized the influence of exercise on post-exercise alpha power by comparing fixed and iAPF-adjusted alpha frequency bands. Resting EEG was recorded from 13 scalp locations in nine subjects before, immediately after as well as ten minutes following an exhaustive exercise protocol on a cycle ergometer. Lower and upper band alpha power was calculated for fixed and iAPF-adjusted frequency bands. Post-exercise lower alpha power increased in both fixed and individually defined bands while a higher upper alpha power was only observed in the fixed frequency band condition. Further, the increase in iAPF was positively related to the changes in fixed-band upper alpha power. It is concluded that lower alpha power is significantly increased following exhaustive exercise whereas the results for upper alpha power are substantially influenced by the method of frequency band definition. Therefore, caution is indicated when analyzing and interpreting exercise-induced changes in alpha power.

Cardiorespiratory demands during an inline speed skating marathon race: a case report.

This study was designed to investigate the intensity profile during an inline speed skating marathon road race. A highly-trained male athlete (20 y, 73.4 kg, 178 cm, V̇O2 peak: 60.8 mL·kg-1·min-1) participated in a marathon road race. Oxygen uptake (V̇O2), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), heart rate (HR) and speed were measured using a portable gas analysis system with a HR monitor and GPS-Sensor integrated. The athlete´s peak V̇O2, HR and speed at ventilatory thresholds were assessed during an incremental field test (22 km·h-1, increase 2 km·h-1 every 5 min) one week before the race. During the race, the absolute time spent in the "easy intensity zone" (V̇O2 below VT1) was 1 min, 49 min "moderate intensity zone" (V̇O2 between VT1 and VT2), and 26 min in the "hard intensity zone" (V̇O2 above VT2). The average HR was 171±6 bpm, corresponding to 95% of the maximum. This study shows that inline speed skating road races over a marathon are conducted at moderate to high V̇O2 and heart rate levels. The physiological racing pattern is very intermittent, requiring both a high level of aerobic and anaerobic capacity.

Comparison of sport-specific and non-specific exercise testing in inline speed skating.

BACKGROUND: The most effective way to measure exercise performance in inline speed skating (ISS) has yet to be established. Generally most athletes are examined by means of traditional but unspecific cycling (CYC) or running (RUN) testing. The present study investigates whether a sport-specific incremental test in ISS reveals different results. METHODS: Eight male top level inline speed skaters (age: 30±4 years; 65.4±6.3 mL∙kg-1∙min-1, training: 12-14 h/week) performed three incremental exhaustive tests in a randomized order (ergometer CYC, field RUN, field ISS). During the tests, heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (V̇O2, energy expenditure (EE) and blood lactate concentration (BLC) were measured. RESULTS: Analysis of variance revealed no significant differences for peak HR (187±9, 191±9, 190±9; P=0.75), BLC (10.9±2.3, 10.8±2.4, 8.5±3.2; P=0.25), V̇O2 (65.4±6.3, 66.8±3.5, 66.4±6.5; P=0.91) and EE (1371±165, 1335±93, 1439±196; P=0.51) between ISS and CYC or RUN test. Similar results appeared for HR and V̇O2 at submaximal intensities (2 and 4 mmol·L-1 BLC; P≥0.05). Small to moderate effect sizes 0.3-0.87 and considerable variability of differences between the exercise modes (mean bias range between 1% and 17% with 95% limits of agreement between 3% and 33%) among submaximal and maximal results limit the comparability of the three tests. CONCLUSIONS: Consequently, CYC and RUN tests may be considered as qualified alternatives for a challenging ISS test. However a sport-specific test should be conducted in cases of doubt, or when precision is required (e.g. for elite athletes or scientific studies).

The interrelation between sensorimotor abilities, cognitive performance and individual EEG alpha peak frequency in young children.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to identify the interrelation between sensorimotor abilities, cognitive performance and individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF), an EEG marker of global architectural and functional properties of the human brain, in healthy preschool children. METHODS: 25 participants completed a one minute eyes-closed EEG recording, two cognitive tests assessing processing speed and visual working memory and a sensorimotor test battery. RESULTS: We found positive correlations between selective sensorimotor abilities and iAPF; however, no significant correlations were observed between iAPF and cognitive performance. Specifically, locomotor skills correlated with iAPF across all cortical regions, except for the occipital cortex. Furthermore, a close relationship was found between sensorimotor and cognitive performance indicating that children with improved sensorimotor abilities were faster and/or more accurate in cognitive task performance. The cumulative pattern of our results indicates that a close relationship exists between sensorimotor and cognitive performance in young children. However, this relationship is dissociated from the iAPF. CONCLUSION: In contrast to adults, in young children the iAPF is related to locomotor skills and not to cognitive processing speed or visual working memory function. SIGNIFICANCE: The global architectural and functional properties of the brain are closely related to locomotor skills during development.

Acute exercise induces cortical inhibition and reduces arousal in response to visual stimulation in young children.

Physical exercise is known to induce a range of transient or sustained psychophysiological effects including stress reduction and improvements in cognitive performance. Previous studies in the area have focused on adults and there has been little research on the relationship between physical exercise and brain function in young children. This study examined the relationship between cortical oscillations, arousal and cognitive performance following physical exercise in 5/6-year preschoolers. Participants completed two counterbalanced sessions of 45 min exercise or a control condition. Electroencephalography (EEG) was measured at rest with the eyes closed and the eyes open, as well as during cognitive performance in a task requiring attention and reaction speed. This was done before (PRE) and after (POST) each session once the participants' heart rate returned to within 10% of pre-exercise values. The percentage change in spectral power from PRE to POST (Δ) differed significantly between conditions. Specifically, Δ alpha-1 power differed significantly between exercise (+5%) and the control condition (-5.9%) with the eyes-open, but not with the eyes-closed. This effect did not significantly differ between cortical regions (i.e., it was global). Further, Δ beta-1 and Δ beta-2 power differed significantly between exercise (beta-1: -10.8%, beta-2: -23.8%) and the control condition (beta-1: -4.3%, beta-2: -5.3%) at frontal sites independent of visual input. Despite significant changes in resting state EEG, cognitive performance and task-related EEG remained unaffected by exercise. The results were interpreted to indicate cortical inhibition and attenuation of arousal in response to visual stimulation following exercise in young children.