Antiphospholipid Antibodies as Key Players in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus: The Relationship with Cytokines and Immune Dysregulation.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by an overproduction of cytokines, such as interleukins and interferons, contributing to systemic inflammation and tissue damage. Antiphospholipid syndrome is a thrombo-inflammatory autoimmune disease affecting a third of SLE patients. We performed an in-depth analysis of the available literature, and we highlighted the complex interplay between immunity, inflammation, and thrombosis, the three major pathogenic pathways that are trapped in a mutually reinforcing destructive loop.

The Lung in Rheumatoid Arthritis-Friend or Enemy?

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic autoimmune condition frequently found in rheumatological patients that sometimes raises diagnosis and management problems. The pathogenesis of the disease is complex and involves the activation of many cells and intracellular signaling pathways, ultimately leading to the activation of the innate and acquired immune system and producing extensive tissue damage. Along with joint involvement, RA can have numerous extra-articular manifestations (EAMs), among which lung damage, especially interstitial lung disease (ILD), negatively influences the evolution and survival of these patients. Although there are more and more RA-ILD cases, the pathogenesis is incompletely understood. In terms of genetic predisposition, external environmental factors act and subsequently determine the activation of immune system cells such as macrophages, neutrophils, B and T lymphocytes, fibroblasts, and dendritic cells. These, in turn, show the ability to secrete molecules with a proinflammatory role (cytokines, chemokines, growth factors) that will produce important visceral injuries, including pulmonary changes. Currently, there is new evidence that supports the initiation of the systemic immune response at the level of pulmonary mucosa where the citrullination process occurs, whereby the autoantibodies subsequently migrate from the lung to the synovial membrane. The aim of this paper is to provide current data regarding the pathogenesis of RA-associated ILD, starting from environmental triggers and reaching the cellular, humoral, and molecular changes involved in the onset of the disease.

Paradoxical Psoriasis in Patients Receiving Therapy with Tumor Necrosis Factor Inhibitors: Potential Pathogenic Mechanisms and the Role of Genetic Factors.

TNF inhibitors (TNFi) have revolutionized the therapeutic management of various chronic immune-mediated inflammatory diseases. Despite their known benefits, these therapies are related to paradoxical adverse effects (PAEs), including paradoxical psoriasis (PP). Although the underlying mechanism remains somewhat unclear, some theories suggest that genetic factors, particularly certain single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), may play an important role. The present review aimed to research and analyze recent findings regarding the pathomechanisms involved in the appearance of PP and the association between various genetic factors and PP in individuals treated with TNFi. We performed a literature search and found that certain genes (IL23R, TNF, FBXL19, CTLA4, SLC12A8, TAP1) are strongly associated with the occurrence of PP in pediatric and adult patients during therapy with TNFi. The identification of the specific SNPs involved in the appearance of PP and other PAEs in patients treated with TNFi for various diseases and in different populations may later favor the recognition of those patients at a high risk of developing such adverse effects and could guide personalized therapeutic strategies in future years.

Autoimmune Liver Diseases and Rheumatoid Arthritis-Is There an Etiopathogenic Link?

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a systemic immune-mediated disease that, in addition to the articular involvement, can have extra-articular manifestations. Even though liver damage in RA is not very common, associated autoimmune liver diseases (AILDs) may occur. The most common AILD associated with RA is primary biliary cirrhosis (PBC), followed by autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) and primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC). There are common underlying mechanisms that play a role in the emergence of autoimmunity and inflammation in both rheumatic and autoimmune liver diseases. Genetic studies have revealed the existence of several common disease-associated genes shared between RA and AILDs, and infectious triggers, particularly those associated with recurrent or complicated urinary tract infections, are also speculated to be potential triggers for these conditions. Moreover, these diseases share common serologic patterns characterized by the presence of specific autoantibodies and hyper-gammaglobulinemia. In this study, we focus on reviewing the association between RA and AILDs regarding the prevalence and possible etiopathogenic link.

Autoimmunity and Autoinflammation: Relapsing Polychondritis and VEXAS Syndrome Challenge.

Relapsing polychondritis is a chronic autoimmune inflammatory condition characterized by recurrent episodes of inflammation at the level of cartilaginous structures and tissues rich in proteoglycans. The pathogenesis of the disease is complex and still incompletely elucidated. The data support the important role of a particular genetic predisposition, with HLA-DR4 being considered an allele that confers a major risk of disease occurrence. Environmental factors, mechanical, chemical or infectious, act as triggers in the development of clinical manifestations, causing the degradation of proteins and the release of cryptic cartilage antigens. Both humoral and cellular immunity play essential roles in the occurrence and perpetuation of autoimmunity and inflammation. Autoantibodies anti-type II, IX and XI collagens, anti-matrilin-1 and anti-COMPs (cartilage oligomeric matrix proteins) have been highlighted in increased titers, being correlated with disease activity and considered prognostic factors. Innate immunity cells, neutrophils, monocytes, macrophages, natural killer lymphocytes and eosinophils have been found in the perichondrium and cartilage, together with activated antigen-presenting cells, C3 deposits and immunoglobulins. Also, T cells play a decisive role in the pathogenesis of the disease, with relapsing polychondritis being considered a TH1-mediated condition. Thus, increased secretions of interferon γ, interleukin (IL)-12 and IL-2 have been highlighted. The "inflammatory storm" formed by a complex network of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines actively modulates the recruitment and infiltration of various cells, with cartilage being a source of antigens. Along with RP, VEXAS syndrome, another systemic autoimmune disease with genetic determinism, has an etiopathogenesis that is still incompletely known, and it involves the activation of the innate immune system through different pathways and the appearance of the cytokine storm. The clinical manifestations of VEXAS syndrome include an inflammatory phenotype often similar to that of RP, which raises diagnostic problems. The management of RP and VEXAS syndrome includes common immunosuppressive therapies whose main goal is to control systemic inflammatory manifestations. The objective of this paper is to detail the main etiopathogenetic mechanisms of a rare disease, summarizing the latest data and presenting the distinct features of these mechanisms.

Cytokines in Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-Focus on TNF-α and IL-17.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is an autoimmune disorder known for its complex pathogenesis, in which cytokines play an essential role. It seems that the modulation of these cytokines may impact disease progression, being considered potential biomarkers. Thus, TNF (tumor necrosis factor)-α and IL (interleukin)-17 are molecules of great interest in SLE. TNF-α plays a dual role in SLE, with both immunosuppressive and proinflammatory functions. The role of IL-17 is clearly described in the pathogenesis of SLE, having a close association with IL-23 in stimulating the inflammatory response and consecutive tissue destruction. It appears that patients with elevated levels of these cytokines are associated with high disease activity expressed by the SLE disease activity index (SLEDAI) score, although some studies do not confirm this association. However, TNF-α and IL-17 are found in increased titers in lupus patients compared to the general population. Whether inhibition of these cytokines would lead to effective treatment is under discussion. In the case of anti-TNF-α therapies in SLE, the possibility of ATIL (anti-TNF-induced lupus) is a serious concern that limits their use. The use of anti-IL-17 therapies in SLE is a promising option, but not yet approved. Future studies of these cytokines in large cohorts will provide valuable information for the management of SLE.

Profile of Newly Diagnosed Patients with HIV Infection in North-Eastern Romania.

Background and Objectives: Human immunodeficiency virus infection and the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) pandemic are unquestionably the most serious public crisis of our time. Identifying, preventing, and treating HIV-associated comorbidities remains a challenge that must be addressed even in the era of antiretroviral therapy. Materials and Methods: In this study, we aimed to characterize the aspects of newly diagnosed patients with HIV/AIDS, during 2021-2022 in Northeastern Romania. We reviewed the frequency and associated comorbidities of these patients in correspondence with national and global results. Results: Our study found that of all newly diagnosed HIV cases (167 cases-74 cases in 2021 and 98 cases in 2022), 49.70% were diagnosed with HIV infection and 50.30% had AIDS. Based on sex correlated with the CD4+ T-lymphocyte level, the most affected were males, with a lower CD4+ T-lymphocyte level overall. The average HIV viral load was 944,689.55 copies/mL. Half of males had an abnormal ALT or AST (39.53% and 49.61%); as for the females, less than a quarter had an increased value of ALT or AST, respectively (18% and 26%). The most frequent co-infections were as follows: oral candidiasis (34.73% of patients), hepatitis B (17.37% of patients), and SARS-CoV-2 infection (8.38%), followed by hepatitis C (6.39%), tuberculosis (TB), syphilis, toxoplasmosis, Cryptococcus, Cytomegalovirus infections. Males were more affected than females, with a higher percentage of co-infections. The prescribed antiretroviral treatment focused on a single-pill regimen (79.04%) to ensure adherence, effectiveness, and safety. Therefore, 20.96% had been prescribed a regimen according to their comorbidities. Conclusions: Our study found a concerning rise in the incidence of HIV in 2022 compared to that in 2021 in Northeastern Romania, because of the rise in post-SARS-CoV-2 pandemic addressability. Advanced immunodeficiency and the burden of opportunistic infections characterize newly diagnosed HIV patients. The physicians should keep in mind that these patients may have more than one clinical condition at presentation.

Temporomandibular Joint Osteoarthritis: Pathogenic Mechanisms Involving the Cartilage and Subchondral Bone, and Potential Therapeutic Strategies for Joint Regeneration.

The temporomandibular joint (TMJ) is a specialized synovial joint that is crucial for the movement and function of the jaw. TMJ osteoarthritis (TMJ OA) is the result of disc dislocation, trauma, functional overburden, and developmental anomalies. TMJ OA affects all joint structures, including the articular cartilage, synovium, subchondral bone, capsule, ligaments, periarticular muscles, and sensory nerves that innervate the tissues. The present review aimed to illustrate the main pathomechanisms involving cartilage and bone changes in TMJ OA and some therapeutic options that have shown potential restorative properties regarding these joint structures in vivo. Chondrocyte loss, extracellular matrix (ECM) degradation, and subchondral bone remodeling are important factors in TMJ OA. The subchondral bone actively participates in TMJ OA through an abnormal bone remodeling initially characterized by a loss of bone mass, followed by reparative mechanisms that lead to stiffness and thickening of the condylar osteochondral interface. In recent years, such therapies as intraarticular platelet-rich plasma (PRP), hyaluronic acid (HA), and mesenchymal stem cell-based treatment (MSCs) have shown promising results with respect to the regeneration of joint structures or the protection against further damage in TMJ OA. Nevertheless, PRP and MSCs are more frequently associated with cartilage and/or bone repair than HA. According to recent findings, the latter could enhance the restorative potential of other therapies (PRP, MSCs) when used in combination, rather than repair TMJ structures by itself. TMJ OA is a complex disease in which degenerative changes in the cartilage and bone develop through intricate mechanisms. The regenerative potential of such therapies as PRP, MSCs, and HA regarding the cartilage and subchondral bone (alone or in various combinations) in TMJ OA remains a matter of further research, with studies sometimes obtaining discrepant results.

Seroprevalence of Anti-Hepatitis E Virus Antibodies among Patients from a Tertiary Hospital from Northeast Romania.

Background and Objectives. Being an enterically transmitted pathogen with a growing prevalence in developed countries, hepatitis E virus (HEV) infection remains an underdiagnosed disease in Eastern Europe. As far as Romania is concerned, only a few studies address this issue. Our goal was to estimate the prevalence of serum anti-HEV IgA/IgM/IgG antibodies in a group of patients admitted to the Clinical Hospital for Infectious Diseases "St. Parascheva" Iasi. Materials and Methods. The cross-sectional study consisted of enrollment of 98 patients admitted to the clinic for COVID-19 over a period of three months in 2020. Results. The median age in our study was 73 years, with an equal gender ratio and with a predominance of people from the urban environment (75%). The overall HEV antibody seroprevalence was 12.2%. The main risk factors associated with HEV infection were consumption of water from unsafe sources (58.3% HEV-positive patients vs. 26.7% HEV-negative patients, p = 0.026) and improperly cooked meat (58.3% HEV-positive patients vs. 23.2% HEV-negative patients, p = 0.01). Zoonotic transmission was an important criterion in our study, with patients reporting contact with pigs, poultry, rats, or other farms animals, but no significant differences were found between HEV antibody positive and negative groups. Conclusions. The seroprevalence rate of HEV antibodies was similar to other previous reports from our area but higher than in most European countries. The fact that HEV antibodies were detected in patients without identifiable risk factors for hepatitis E is evidence of subclinical infection as a silent threat.

Poorly differentiated clusters: prognostic significance in colorectal carcinomas immunohistochemistry images.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) remains a major public health burden worldwide, despite increased knowledge on its pathogenesis and advances in therapy. We aimed to evaluate a new histological grading system based on poorly differentiated clusters (PDCs) counting - the PDCs grade (PDCs-G), and its clinicopathological and prognostic significance, compared to the World Health Organisation (WHO) grading system (WHO grade). We reviewed 71 surgical resection specimens for CRC from the Emergency County Hospital "Pius Brînzeu" Timisoara. The cases were graded using the WHO grade and the PDCs-G, with further analysis of their association with the other recognised prognostic parameters. Using the WHO grade, 9% of the analysed cases were G1, 80% G2, 11% G3, and none of the tumours was graded G4, while in the PDCs-G 16% were G1, 45% G2, and 39% G3. In multivariate analysis PDCs-G was significantly associated with the American Joint Committee on Cancer stage of the disease (AJCC stage) (p = 0.0003), depth of invasion (pT) (p = 0.0084), nodal status (LNM) (p < 0.0001), lymphovascular invasion (LVI) (p < 0.0001), perineural invasion (PNI) (p < 0.0052), and tumour border configuration (p < 0.0001). The novel grading system based on PDCs counting is an additional histological tool in the evaluation of CRC and a promising new prognostic factor for these patients.

Attentional bias towards social interactions during viewing of naturalistic scenes.

Human visual attention is readily captured by the social information in scenes. Multiple studies have shown that social areas of interest (AOIs) such as faces and bodies attract more attention than non-social AOIs (e.g., objects or background). However, whether this attentional bias is moderated by the presence (or absence) of a social interaction remains unclear. Here, the gaze of 70 young adults was tracked during the free viewing of 60 naturalistic scenes. All photographs depicted two people, who were either interacting or not. Analyses of dwell time revealed that more attention was spent on human than background AOIs in the interactive pictures. In non-interactive pictures, however, dwell time did not differ between AOI type. In the time-to-first-fixation analysis, humans always captured attention before other elements of the scene, although this difference was slightly larger in interactive than non-interactive scenes. These findings confirm the existence of a bias towards social information in attentional capture and suggest our attention values social interactions beyond the presence of two people.

Liver Damage Associated with SARS-CoV-2 Infection-Myth or Reality?

(1) Introduction: While the primary impairment in COVID-19 is pulmonary, the ubiquitous distribution of angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) demonstrates the possible presence of systemic disease with involvement of the heart, kidneys, liver and other organs. (2) Methods: We retrospectively studied the observation sheets of patients diagnosed with SARS-CoV-2 infection hospitalized in the "Sf. Parascheva" Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases from Iasi for a period of 3 months. The aim of the study was to identify the frequency of liver injury due to SARS-CoV-2 infection among patients and its impact on the course of the disease. (3) Results: Out of the total number of hospitalized cases (1552), 207 (13.34%) were the subjects of our analysis. The severe form of SARS-CoV-2 infection predominated (108 cases; 52.17%) and in terms of liver damage, in all cases increased transaminase levels predominated and were determined to be secondary to the viral infection. We divided the lot into two groups, A (23 cases; 23.19%) and B (159 cases; 76.81%), depending on the time of onset of liver dysfunction, either at the time of hospitalization or during hospitalization. The evolution of liver dysfunction was predominant in most cases, with an average time of onset at 12.4 days of hospitalization. Death occurred in 50 cases. (4) Conclusions: This study revealed that high AST and ALT at hospital admission was associated with a high mortality risk in COVID-19 patients. Therefore, abnormal liver test results can be a significant prognostic indicator of outcomes in COVID-19 patients.

Comparative Evaluation of Breast Ductal Carcinoma Grading: A Deep-Learning Model and General Pathologists' Assessment Approach.

Breast cancer is the most prevalent neoplasia among women, with early and accurate diagnosis critical for effective treatment. In clinical practice, however, the subjective nature of histological grading of infiltrating ductal adenocarcinoma of the breast (DAC-NOS) often leads to inconsistencies among pathologists, posing a significant challenge to achieving optimal patient outcomes. Our study aimed to address this reproducibility problem by leveraging artificial intelligence (AI). We trained a deep-learning model using a convolutional neural network-based algorithm (CNN-bA) on 100 whole slide images (WSIs) of DAC-NOS from the Cancer Genome Atlas Breast Invasive Carcinoma (TCGA-BRCA) dataset. Our model demonstrated high precision, sensitivity, and F1 score across different grading components in about 17.5 h with 19,000 iterations. However, the agreement between the model's grading and that of general pathologists varied, showing the highest agreement for the mitotic count score. These findings suggest that AI has the potential to enhance the accuracy and reproducibility of breast cancer grading, warranting further refinement and validation of this approach.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease as a Paradoxical Reaction to Anti-TNF-α Treatment-A Review.

TNF-α inhibitors (TNFis) have revolutionized the treatment of certain chronic immune-mediated diseases, being widely and successfully used in rheumatic inflammatory diseases, and have also proved their efficacy in the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, among the side effects of these agents are the so-called paradoxical effects. They can be defined as the appearance or exacerbation of a pathological condition that usually responds to this class of drug while treating a patient for another condition. A wide range of paradoxical effects have been reported including dermatological, intestinal and ophthalmic conditions. The causal mechanism of occurrence may implicate an imbalance of cytokines, but is still not fully understood, and remains a matter of debate. These paradoxical reactions often show improvement on discontinuation of the medication or on switching to another TNFi, but in some cases it is a class effect that could lead to the withdrawal of all anti-TNF agents. Close monitoring of patients treated with TNFis is necessary in order to detect paradoxical reactions. In this study we focus on reviewing IBD occurrence as a paradoxical effect of TNFi therapy in patients with rheumatological diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, ankylosing spondylitis, and juvenile idiopathic arthritis).

Evaluation of Disease Activity in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: Diagnostic Tools in the Assessment of Histological Healing.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) comprises two types of chronic intestinal disorders: Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. In long-standing ulcerative colitis disease activity, histological persistent inflammation has been linked to an increased risk of relapse, and long-term corticosteroid use, even when endoscopic remission is reached. In Crohn's disease, the discontinuous nature of lesions and transmural inflammation have limited the standardized histological assessment. The current evidence from research proposes that besides clinical and endoscopic healing, the achievement of histological healing constitutes an endpoint to assess disease activity and remission in IBD patients concerning better long-term disease outcomes. Histological alterations may persist even in the absence of endoscopic lesions. For these reasons, new advanced techniques promise to revolutionize the field of IBD by improving the endoscopic and histologic assessment, disease characterization, and ultimately patient care, with an established role in daily practice for objective assessment of lesions. This review outlines the importance of including microscopic evaluation in IBD, highlighting the clinical benefits of a deep state of disease remission using validated diagnostic methods and scoring systems for daily clinical practice.

Unique Growth Pattern Presentation of a Papillary Renal Cell Carcinoma.

Papillary renal cell carcinoma (PRCC) is defined by the WHO 2022 classification as a malignant tumor derived from the renal tubular epithelium. However, the WHO 2016 classification subdivided PRCC into two types, with type 1 PRCC showing papillae covered by a single layer of neoplastic cells, and type II PRCC, which can show multiple types of histologies and is more aggressive. The WHO 2022 classification eliminated the subcategorization of PRCC. Here, we present a histopathological case study with a 4-year follow-up diagnosed in 2018 as type I PRCC (WHO 2016) with intra-pyelocalyceal growth pattern in a 59-year-old male patient with a history of Type II diabetes mellitus, left-sided renal-ureteral lithiasis, and benign hypertrophy of the prostate. Microscopically the tumor was composed of small cuboidal cells with inconspicuous nucleoli, arranged on a single layer of tubulo-papillary cores, and scant, foamy macrophages. The tumor had a non-infiltrative, expansive pyelocalyceal growth pattern. Immunohistochemically (IHC), the tumor cells were CK7-intense and diffusely positive, and stained granular for AMACR. Next-generation sequencing (NGS) was performed for the tumor and the normal adjacent tissue for in-depth pathological characterization. To our knowledge, this is the first reported case where a PRCC displays this unique intra-pyelocalyceal growth pattern, mimicking a urothelial cell carcinoma of the renal pelvis system.

Characteristics and Trends of COVID-19 Infection in a Tertiary Hospital in Romania: A Retrospective Study.

(1) Background: The outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic represented a real challenge for all of humanity. Characterized by a complex spectrum of signs and symptoms, by various severity degrees, the disease spread rapidly around the world. After more than two and half years since the beginning of COVID-19 pandemic, in the context of a paradoxical, enigmatic, and relentless COVID-19, the objective of the current study was to evaluate the characteristics and evolution of patients with SARS-CoV-2 infection, hospitalized in "St. Parascheva" Clinical Hospital of Infectious Diseases (Iasi, Romania). (2) Methods: This is a retrospective study that used the medical database recorded between July and November 2021 in order to highlight the characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 infection in patients from the northeastern region of Romania. (3) Results: We enrolled in the study a total of 1732 SARS-CoV-2 infected patients, mean age 67 ± 3.4 years, the female gender predominating (987 cases; 56.98%) as well as patients from the urban environment (982 patients; 56.69%). Moderate form of the disease predominated (814 cases; 47%), pulmonary imaging changes were found in 1042 (60.16%) cases, and 1242 (71.71%) patients had at least one underlying disease. After a median length of hospitalization of 9.5 days, 1359 (78.46%) patients were discharged cured, 48 (2.77%) were transferred to other services by decompensating the associated pathologies, 302 (17.43%) patients needed extensive support in the intensive care unit and there were 325 (18.76%) deaths. (4) Conclusions: The epidemiological characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 infection recorded in our study were mostly the same as characteristics of COVID-19 from all over the world.

New onset severe ulcerative colitis following Ixekizumab therapy.

Ixekizumab is one of the three biologic agents including Secukinumab and Brodalumab that targets the Interleukin-17 (IL-17) pathway to reduce inflammation in psoriasis and ankylosing spondylitis. In this report we present the case of 42-year-old woman, who was diagnosed with psoriasis and psoriatic arthritis. One week after first administration of Ixekizumab, she developed diffuse abdominal pain, bloody diarrhea (7-8 stools/day) and fever. Following imaging (colonoscopy, computed tomography) and laboratory investigations, she was diagnosed with acute severe ulcerative colitis complicated with toxic megacolon. The medical treatment (first corticotherapy, then infliximab) has failed and the patient needed emergency colectomy. Based on the immunological mechanisms and the observation from other studies, Ixekizumab should be considered an etiology for new-onset inflammatory bowel disease.

Clinical significance of early IgA anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody detection in patients from a Romanian referral COVID-19 hospital.

Controlling the spread of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) includes institute isolation, quarantine measures and appropriate clinical management, which all require effective screening, diagnostic and prognostic tools. The present study aimed to analyze severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2)-specific immunoglobulin (Ig)A detection and determine the potential association with the clinical course of COVID-19 and the levels of inflammation. In the present study, the presence of IgA and IgG SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in 75 consecutive patients with confirmed COVID-19 infection was investigated. No significant differences were found between the IgA positive and negative groups, regarding the presence of symptoms, haematological and inflammatory variables, or the presence of pneumonia. In the majority of cases, antibody detection was comparable, for example, 79.7% of patients in the IgA positive group exhibited both types of antibodies, while 80.9% of patients in the IgA negative group were also IgG negative. A total of four patients in the IgA negative group presented with anti-SARS-CoV-2 IgG antibodies. Early detection of IgA was more frequent in patients who later developed severe forms of the disease. In addition, the IgG SARS-CoV-2 antibody response was higher in patients with the severe form of the disease.

Three-Dimensional Virtual Pathology Specimens: Decrease in Student Performance upon Switching to Digital Models.

Several alternatives to formalin-stored physical specimens have been described in medical literature, but only a few studies have addressed the issue of learning outcomes when these materials were employed. The aim of this study was to conduct a prospective controlled study to assess student performance in learning anatomic pathology when adding three-dimensional (3D) virtual models as adjunct teaching materials in the study of macroscopic lesions. Third-year medical students (n = 501) enrolled at the Victor Babes University of Medicine and Pharmacy in Timisoara, Romania, were recruited to participate. Student performance was assessed through questionnaires. Students performed worse with new method, with poorer results in terms of overall (mean 77.6% ±SD 11.8% vs. 83.6% ±10.5) and individual question scores (percentage of questions with maximum score 34.6% ±25.6 vs. 47.7 ± 24.6). This decreased performance was generalizable, as it was observed across all language divisions and was independent of the teaching assistant involved in the process. In an open-ended feedback evaluation of the new 3D specimens, most students agreed that the new method was better, bringing arguments both for and against these models. Although subjectively the students found the novel teaching materials to be more helpful, their learning performance decreased. A wider implementation as well as exposure to the technique and use of virtual specimens in medical teaching could improve the students' performance outcome by accommodating the needs for novel teaching materials for digital natives.