Revisiting Young Children's Understanding of the Psychological Causes of Behavior.

In 1989, Miller and Aloise challenged the prevailing belief that preschoolers tend to explain others' behavior in terms of external events or a person's physical attributes and have little understanding of psychological causes. That review documented preschoolers' understanding of, and even preference for, psychological causes as part of an emerging renaissance in developmental social-cognitive research. The present, updated review (97 articles, participant ages 3 months to 6 years) suggests the emergence of a transformative new perspective in which social-cognition is balanced between social and cognitive aspects rather than tilted toward cognition. Recent research on infants' awareness of mental states, young children's understanding of social categories and their judgments of the trustworthiness of informants, and cultural context reveals various ways in which preschoolers' social-causal reasoning is social.

Put your hands up! Gesturing improves preschoolers' executive function.

This study addressed the causal direction of a previously reported relation between preschoolers' gesturing and their executive functioning on the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS) sorting-switch task. Gesturing the relevant dimension for sorting was induced in a Gesture group through instructions, imitation, and prompts. In contrast, the Control group was instructed to "think hard" when sorting. Preschoolers (N = 50) performed two DCCS tasks: (a) sort by size and then spatial orientation of two objects and (b) sort by shape and then proximity of the two objects. An examination of performance over trials permitted a fine-grained depiction of patterns of younger and older children in the Gesture and Control conditions. After the relevant dimension was switched, the Gesture group had more accurate sorts than the Control group, particularly among younger children on the second task. Moreover, the amount of gesturing predicted the number of correct sorts among younger children on the second task. The overall association between gesturing and sorting was not reflected at the level of individual trials, perhaps indicating covert gestural representation on some trials or the triggering of a relevant verbal representation by the gesturing. The delayed benefit of gesturing, until the second task, in the younger children may indicate a utilization deficiency. Results are discussed in terms of theories of gesturing and thought. The findings open up a new avenue of research and theorizing about the possible role of gesturing in emerging executive function.

Effectiveness of Prompts on Fourth-Grade Children's Dietary Recall Accuracy Depends on Retention Interval and Varies by Gender.

BACKGROUND: Dietary recall accuracy is related to retention interval (RI) (i.e., time between to-be-reported meals and the interview), and possibly to prompts. To the best of our knowledge, no study has evaluated their combined effect. OBJECTIVE: The combined influence of RI and prompts on children's recall accuracy was investigated in this study. Two RIs [short (prior-24-h recall obtained in afternoon) and long (previous-day recall obtained in morning)] were crossed with 4 prompts [forward (distant-to-recent), meal-name (breakfast, lunch, etc.), open (no instructions), and reverse (recent-to-distant)], creating 8 conditions. METHODS: Fourth-grade children (n = 480; 50% girls) were randomly selected from consenting children at 10 schools in 4 districts in a southern state during 3 school years (2011-2012, 2012-2013, and 2013-2014). Each child was observed eating school-provided breakfast and lunch, and interviewed one time under 1 of the 8 conditions. Condition assignment was constrained so that each had 60 children (30 girls). Accuracy measures were food-item omission and intrusion rates, and energy correspondence rate and inflation ratio. For each measure, linear models determined effects of RI, prompt, gender, and interactions (2-way, 3-way); race/ethnicity, school year, and district were control variables. RESULTS: RI (P values < 0.015) and prompt (P values < 0.005) were significant for all 4 accuracy measures. RI × prompt (P values < 0.001) was significant for 3 accuracy measures (not intrusion rate). Prompt × gender (P = 0.005) was significant for omission rate. RI × prompt × gender was significant for intrusion rate and inflation ratio (P values < 0.001). For the short vs. long RI across prompts and genders, accuracy was better by 33-50% for each accuracy measure. CONCLUSIONS: To obtain the most accurate recalls possible from children, studies should be designed to use a short rather than long RI. Prompts affect children's recall accuracy, although the effectiveness of different prompts depends on RI and varies by gender: at a short RI, the choice of prompts has little systematic effect on accuracy, whereas at a long RI, reverse prompts may elicit the most accurate recalls.

Children's Social Desirability: Effects of Test Assessment Mode.

This study examined a recently developed short version of the Children's Social Desirability (CSD-S) scale with 157 fourth-grade children. Of interest was a) whether one-month test-retest reliability would vary as a function of test assessment mode (interview or classroom), gender, race, SES, and BMI percentile, and b) whether the degree of social desirability would vary as a function of these same variables. The CSD-S scale showed good test-retest reliability for both interview and classroom assessment modes (.85 and .83, respectively). Internal consistency also was good (first interview administration = .84; first classroom administration = .81). Reliability was good and did not vary significantly over assessment mode or any child subgroup variables, suggesting that the CSD-S scale is appropriate for general use. The interview mode elicited significantly more socially desirable answers than did the classroom mode. Social desirability did not differ across child subgroups. Some of these findings were examined, and replicated, on another sample. Thus, the CSD-S scale may be used with diverse groups of children to a) reliably assess a social desirability bias that may systematically bias other self-reports of interest to researchers and b) examine individual differences in degree of social desirability.

Relations between Executive Function and Academic Achievement from Ages 5 to 17 in a Large, Representative National Sample.

This study examined age-related changes in complex executive function (EF) in a large, representative sample (N = 2,036) aged 5 to 17 using the Cognitive Assessment System (CAS; Naglieri & Das, 1997a). Relations between complex EF and academic achievement were examined on a sub-sample (N = 1,395) given the Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement-Revised (Woodcock & Johnson, 1989). Performance on the three complex EF tasks improved until at least age 15, although improvement slowed with increasing age and varied some across tasks. Moreover, the different developmental patterns in the correlations between completion time and accuracy provide clues to developmental processes. Examination of individual achievement subtests clarified the specific aspects of academic performance most related to complex EF. Finally, the correlation between complex EF and academic achievement varied across ages, but the developmental pattern of the strength of these correlations was remarkably similar for overall math and reading achievement, suggesting a domain-general relation between complex EF and academic achievement.

A developmental perspective on executive function.

This review article examines theoretical and methodological issues in the construction of a developmental perspective on executive function (EF) in childhood and adolescence. Unlike most reviews of EF, which focus on preschoolers, this review focuses on studies that include large age ranges. It outlines the development of the foundational components of EF-inhibition, working memory, and shifting. Cognitive and neurophysiological assessments show that although EF emerges during the first few years of life, it continues to strengthen significantly throughout childhood and adolescence. The components vary somewhat in their developmental trajectories. The article relates the findings to long-standing issues of development (e.g., developmental sequences, trajectories, and processes) and suggests research needed for constructing a developmental framework encompassing early childhood through adolescence.

Body mass index, sex, interview protocol, and children's accuracy for reporting kilocalories observed eaten at school meals.

This pilot study investigated body mass index (BMI; calculated as kg/m(2)), sex, interview protocol, and children's accuracy for reporting kilocalories. Forty 4th-grade children (20 low-BMI: >or=5th and <50th percentiles, 10 boys, 15 African American; 20 high-BMI: >or=85th percentile, 10 boys, 15 African American) were observed eating school meals (breakfast, lunch) and interviewed either that evening about the prior 24 hours or the next morning about the previous day, with 10 low-BMI (5 boys) and 10 high-BMI (5 boys) children per interview protocol. Five kilocalorie variables were analyzed using separate four-factor (BMI group, sex, race, interview protocol) analyses of variance. No effects were found for reported or matched kilocalories. More kilocalories were observed (P<0.02) and omitted (P<0.05) by high-BMI than low-BMI children. For intruded kilocalories, means were smaller (better) for high-BMI girls than high-BMI boys, but larger for low-BMI girls than low-BMI boys (interaction P<0.04); low-BMI girls intruded the most while high-BMI girls intruded the least. For interview protocol, omitted and intruded kilocalories were higher (worse), although not significantly so (P values <0.11), for interviews about the previous day than the prior 24 hours. These results illuminate relations of BMI, sex, interview protocol, and children's reporting accuracy, and are consistent with results concerning BMI and sex from studies with adults.

Theory of mind and executive function in Chinese preschool children.

Cross-cultural research on children's theory of mind (ToM) understanding has raised questions about its developmental sequence and relationship with executive function (EF). The current study examined how ToM develops (using the tasks from Wellman & Liu, 2004) in relation to 2 EF skills (conflict inhibition, working memory) in 997 Chinese preschoolers (ages 3, 4, 5) in Chengdu, China. Compared with prior research with other Chinese and non-Chinese children, some general patterns in development were replicated in this sample. However, the children showed culture-specific reversals in the developmental sequence of ToM. For example, Chengdu children performed differently on the 2 false-belief tasks that were thought to be equivalent. Furthermore, conflict inhibition as well as working memory uniquely predicted ToM performance. We discuss the issues of ToM development as they relate to test items and cross-cultural--and subcultural--differences.

Test-Retest Reliability of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey's 5-Item Food Insecurity Questionnaire Completed by Fourth-Grade Children.

OBJECTIVE: To examine test-retest reliability and internal consistency of a 5-item food insecurity questionnaire used in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). METHODS: Researchers administered NHANES's questionnaire in the classroom to 92 fourth-grade children (74 African American; 48 girls) in 2 sessions 27-30 days apart in spring, 2011. Each classroom administration lasted 5-10 minutes. RESULTS: Test-retest reliability was 0.66 (Kendall tau), which is modest. Internal consistency (Cronbach alpha) was .67 and .70 for respective administrations. Food insecurity scores were related to gender (adjusted P = .05) and academic achievement (adjusted P = .004) but not to socioeconomic status or body mass index percentile (binomial regression). On average, boys reported higher food insecurity than girls. Children with lower academic achievement scores reported higher food insecurity than children with higher academic achievement scores. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: NHANES's 5-item questionnaire may be group administered to assess food insecurity efficiently as reported by individual fourth-grade children.

Test-retest reliability of a short form of the children's social desirability scale for nutrition and health-related research.

OBJECTIVE: To examine test-retest reliability and internal consistency of the Children's Social Desirability Short (CSD-S) scale, consisting of 14 items from the Children's Social Desirability scale. METHODS: The previously validated CSD-S scale was classroom administered to 97 fourth-grade children (80% African American; 76% low socioeconomic status) in 2 sessions a month apart. Each classroom administration lasted approximately 5 minutes. RESULTS: The CSD-S scale showed acceptable levels of test-retest reliability (0.70) and internal consistency (.82 and .85 for the first and second administrations, respectively). Reliability was adequate within subgroups of gender, socioeconomic status, academic achievement, and body mass index percentile. Levels of social desirability did not differ across subgroups. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Social desirability bias is a potential source of systematic response error in children's self-report assessments of nutrition and health-related behaviors. The CSD-S scale may be used with diverse groups of children to reliably and efficiently assess social desirability bias.

An 8-month randomized controlled exercise trial alters brain activation during cognitive tasks in overweight children.

OBJECTIVE: Children who are less fit reportedly have lower performance on tests of cognitive control and differences in brain function. This study examined the effect of an exercise intervention on brain function during two cognitive control tasks in overweight children. DESIGN AND METHODS: Participants included 43 unfit, overweight (BMI ≥ 85th percentile) children 8- to 11-years old (91% Black), who were randomly divided into either an aerobic exercise (n = 24) or attention control group (n = 19). Each group was offered a separate instructor-led after-school program every school day for 8 months. Before and after the program, all children performed two cognitive control tasks during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI): antisaccade and flanker. RESULTS: Compared to the control group, the exercise group decreased activation in several regions supporting antisaccade performance, including precentral gyrus and posterior parietal cortex, and increased activation in several regions supporting flanker performance, including anterior cingulate and superior frontal gyrus. CONCLUSIONS: Exercise may differentially impact these two task conditions, or the paradigms in which cognitive control tasks were presented may be sensitive to distinct types of brain activation that show different effects of exercise. In sum, exercise appears to alter efficiency or flexible modulation of neural circuitry supporting cognitive control in overweight children.

A show of hands: Relations between young children's gesturing and executive function.

This study brought together 2 literatures-gesturing and executive function-in order to examine the possible role of gesture in children's executive function. Children (N = 41) aged 2½-6 years performed a sorting-shift executive function task (Dimensional Change Card Sort). Responses of interest included correct sorting, response latency, spontaneous gestures, and verbal and gestural explanations for sorts. An examination of performance over trials permitted a fine-grained depiction of patterns of younger and older high gesturing versus low gesturing children. Relevant gesturing was positively associated with correct sorting, even more strongly than was age, and had its greatest impact right after the shift to a new relevant dimension. Generally high gesturers outperformed low gesturers even on trials in which the former did not gesture. Results were discussed in terms of theories of gesturing and of possible processes (e.g., scaffolding, adding a second representation) by which gestures might facilitate executive function, and vice versa. Possible preexisting differences between high and low gesturers also were considered. The findings open up a new avenue of research and theorizing about the possible role of gesturing in emerging executive function.

Exercise improves executive function and achievement and alters brain activation in overweight children: a randomized, controlled trial.

OBJECTIVE: This experiment tested the hypothesis that exercise would improve executive function. DESIGN: Sedentary, overweight 7- to 11-year-old children (N = 171, 56% girls, 61% Black, M ± SD age = 9.3 ± 1.0 years, body mass index [BMI] = 26 ± 4.6 kg/m², BMI z-score = 2.1 ± 0.4) were randomized to 13 ± 1.6 weeks of an exercise program (20 or 40 min/day), or a control condition. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Blinded, standardized psychological evaluations (Cognitive Assessment System and Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement III) assessed cognition and academic achievement. Functional MRI measured brain activity during executive function tasks. RESULTS: Intent to treat analysis revealed dose-response benefits of exercise on executive function and mathematics achievement. Preliminary evidence of increased bilateral prefrontal cortex activity and reduced bilateral posterior parietal cortex activity attributable to exercise was also observed. CONCLUSION: Consistent with results obtained in older adults, a specific improvement on executive function and brain activation changes attributable to exercise were observed. The cognitive and achievement results add evidence of dose-response and extend experimental evidence into childhood. This study provides information on an educational outcome. Besides its importance for maintaining weight and reducing health risks during a childhood obesity epidemic, physical activity may prove to be a simple, important method of enhancing aspects of children's mental functioning that are central to cognitive development. This information may persuade educators to implement vigorous physical activity.

Executive Functions after Age 5: Changes and Correlates.

Research and theorizing on executive function (EF) in childhood has been disproportionately focused on preschool age children. This review paper outlines the importance of examining EF throughout childhood, and even across the lifespan. First, examining EF in older children can address the question of whether EF is a unitary construct. The relations among the EF components, particularly as they are recruited for complex tasks, appear to change over the course of development. Second, much of the development of EF, especially working memory, shifting, and planning, occurs after age 5. Third, important applications of EF research concern the role of school-age children's EF in various aspects of school performance, as well as social functioning and emotional control. Future research needs to examine a more complete developmental span, from early childhood through late adulthood, in order to address developmental issues adequately.

Exercise and Children's Intelligence, Cognition, and Academic Achievement.

Studies that examine the effects of exercise on children's intelligence, cognition, or academic achievement were reviewed and results were discussed in light of (a) contemporary cognitive theory development directed toward exercise, (b) recent research demonstrating the salutary effects of exercise on adults' cognitive functioning, and (c) studies conducted with animals that have linked physical activity to changes in neurological development and behavior. Similar to adults, exercise facilitates children's executive function (i.e., processes required to select, organize, and properly initiate goal-directed actions). Exercise may prove to be a simple, yet important, method of enhancing those aspects of children's mental functioning central to cognitive development.

Effects of aerobic exercise on overweight children's cognitive functioning: a randomized controlled trial.

The study tested the effect of aerobic exercise training on executive function in overweight children. Ninety-four sedentary, overweight but otherwise healthy children (mean age = 9.2 years, body mass index 85th percentile) were randomized to a low-dose (20 min/day exercise), high-dose (40 min/day exercise), or control condition. Exercise sessions met 5 days/week for 15 weeks. The Cognitive Assessment System (CAS), a standardized test of cognitive processes, was administered individually before and following intervention. Analysis of covariance on posttest scores revealed effects on executive function. Group differences emerged for the CAS Planning scale (p = .03). Planning scores for the high-dose group were significantly greater than those of the control group. Exercise may prove to be a simple, yet important, method of enhancing aspects of children's mental functioning that are central to cognitive and social development.