Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis and Mycobacterium avium complex and related subspecies as causative agents of zoonotic and occupational diseases.

Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) and Mycobacterium avium paratuberculosis (MAP) cause zoonotic infections transmitted by birds and livestock herds. These pathogens have remained as serious economic and health threats in most areas of the world. As zoonotic diseases, the risk of development of occupational disease and even death outcome necessitate implementation of control strategies to prevent its spread. Zoonotic MAP infections include Crohn's disease, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, sarcoidosis, diabetes mellitus, and immune-related diseases (such as Hashimoto's thyroiditis). Paratuberculosis has classified as type B epidemic zoonotic disease according to world health organization which is transmitted to human through consumption of dairy and meat products. In addition, MAC causes pulmonary manifestations and lymphadenitis in normal hosts and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) progression (by serotypes 1, 4, and 8). Furthermore, other subspecies have caused respiratory abscesses, neck lymph nodes, and disseminated osteomyelitis in children and ulcers. However, the data over the occupational relatedness of these subspecies is rare. These agents can cause occupational infections in susceptible herd breeders. Several molecular methods have been recognized as proper strategies for tracking the infection. In this study, some zoonotic aspects, worldwide prevalence and control strategies regarding infections due to MAP and MAC and related subspecies has been reviewed.

Memory and CAR-NK cell-based novel approaches for HIV vaccination and eradication.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one of the critical infectious agents with thousands of newly infected people worldwide. High mutational capability and rapid diversification, inhibition of humoral and cellular immune responses, and thus inability for recognition of an immunogenic region in the viral envelope by the immune system are major challenges. Natural killer (NK) cells are multifunctional, playing a key role in the identification and elimination of HIV-infected cells. These cells identify and eliminate virus-infected cells in a multilateral manner, such as ligand stress, antibody-dependent cell cytotoxicity (ADCC), T follicular helper (Tfh), and the activation of most of the stimulatory receptors. Moreover, these cells release cytokines leading to the activation of cytotoxic lymphocytes (CTLs) and dendritic cells (DCs), contributing to efficient viral elimination. Some subsets of NK cells exhibit putatively enhanced effector functions against viruses following vaccination easily expanded and identified by NK cell lines culture. Furthermore, NK cells promote the elimination of HIV-infected cells which reduce the expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. Memory NK cells have higher functionality and renewable potential. A pioneering strategy to establish an efficacious HIV vaccine would include stimulation of the accumulation and long-term maintenance of these HIV-reactive NK cells. CAR-NK (chimeric antigen receptor-natural killer) cells-based antiviral therapies have emerged as novel approaches with the ability of antigen recognition and more advantages than CAR-T (chimeric antigen receptor-T) cells. Recent development of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived NK cells with enhanced activity and efficiency conferred a promising insight into CAR-NK cell-based therapies. Therefore, memory and CAR-NK cells-based approaches can emerge as novel strategies providing implications for HIV vaccine design and therapy.

Herbal medicine as an auspicious therapeutic approach for the eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection: A concise review.

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) causes gastric mucosa inflammation and gastric cancer mostly via several virulence factors. Induction of proinflammatory pathways plays a crucial role in chronic inflammation, gastric carcinoma, and H. pylori pathogenesis. Herbal medicines (HMs) are nontoxic, inexpensive, and mostly anti-inflammatory reminding meticulous emphasis on the elimination of H. pylori and gastric cancer. Several HM has exerted paramount anti-H. pylori traits. In addition, they exert anti-inflammatory effects through several cellular circuits such as inhibition of 5'-adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase, nuclear factor-κB, and activator protein-1 pathway activation leading to the inhibition of proinflammatory cytokines (interleukin 1α [IL-1α], IL-1ß, IL-6, IL-8, IL-12, interferon γ, and tumor necrosis factor-α) expression. Furthermore, they inhibit nitrous oxide release and COX-2 and iNOS activity. The apoptosis induction in Th1 and Th17-polarized lymphocytes and M2-macrophagic polarization and STAT6 activation has also been exhibited. Thus, their exact consumable amount has not been revealed, and clinical trials are needed to achieve optimal concentration and their pharmacokinetics. In the aspect of bioavailability, solubility, absorption, and metabolism of herbal compounds, nanocarriers such as poly lactideco-glycolide-based loading and related formulations are helpful. Noticeably, combined therapies accompanied by probiotics can also be examined for better clearance of gastric mucosa. In addition, downregulation of inflammatory microRNAs (miRNAs) by HMs and upregulation of those anti-inflammatory miRNAs is proposed to protect the gastric mucosa. Thus there is anticipation that in near future HM-based formulations and proper delivery systems are possibly applicable against gastric cancer or other ailments because of H. pylori.