Driving transcriptional regulators in melanoma metastasis.

The progression of melanoma toward the metastatic phenotype occurs in a defined stepwise manner. While many molecular changes take place early in melanoma development, progression toward the malignant phenotype, most notably during the transition from the radial growth phase (RGP) to the vertical growth phase (VGP) involves deregulated expression of several transcription factors. For example, the switch from RGP to VGP is associated with the loss of the transcription factor AP2α and gain of transcriptional activity of cAMP-responsive element binding protein. Together with the upregulation of microphthalmia-associated transcription factor, activating transcription factor 2, nuclear factor kappa B, and other transcription factors, these changes lead to dysregulated expression or function of important cellular adhesion molecules, matrix degrading enzymes, survival factors, as well as other factors leading to metastatic melanoma. Additionally, recent evidence suggests that microRNAs and RNA editing machinery influence the expression of transcription factors or are regulated themselves by transcription factors. Many of the downstream signaling molecules regulated by transcription factors, such as protease activated receptor-1, interleukin-8, and MCAM/MUC18 represent new treatment prospects.

ß8 integrin is essential for neuroblast migration in the rostral migratory stream.

Neurogenesis in the post-natal brain occurs in two primary locations: the subgranular layer of the hippocampal dentate gyrus and the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the lateral ventricles. Following differentiation, neuroblasts within the SVZ migrate several millimeters to the olfactory bulbs (OBs) via a distinct anatomic route, or rostral migratory stream (RMS). The genes that govern neuroblast directional migration, and particularly those encoding cell adhesion and signaling factors, remain largely uncharacterized. Here, we report that the extracellular matrix adhesion receptor, ß8 integrin, is essential for proper neuroblast chain formation and directional navigation in the RMS. Primary neuroblasts isolated from the mouse brain express robust levels of ß8 integrin protein, and selective ablation of ß8 integrin gene expression in neuroblasts leads to aberrant chain migration and size-reduced OBs. These integrin-dependent defects can be recapitulated ex vivo using isolated neurospheres or SVZ explants. Collectively, these data identify essential cell-intrinsic functions for ß8 integrin in regulating neuroblast polarity and directional navigation in the mouse forebrain.

NFAT1 Directly Regulates IL8 and MMP3 to Promote Melanoma Tumor Growth and Metastasis.

Nuclear factor of activated T cell (NFAT1, NFATC2) is a transcription factor that binds and positively regulates IL2 expression during T-cell activation. NFAT1 has important roles in both innate and adaptive immune responses, but its involvement in cancer is not completely understood. We previously demonstrated that NFAT1 contributes to melanoma growth and metastasis by regulating the autotaxin gene (Enpp2). Here, we report a strong correlation between NFAT1 expression and metastatic potential in melanoma cell lines and tumor specimens. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying NFAT1 overexpression during melanoma progression, we conducted a microarray on a highly metastatic melanoma cell line in which NFAT1 expression was stably silenced. We identified and validated two downstream targets of NFAT1, IL8, and MMP3. Accordingly, NFAT1 depletion in metastatic melanoma cell lines was associated with reduced IL8 and MMP3 expression, whereas NFAT1 overexpression in a weakly metastatic cell line induced expression of these targets. Restoration of NFAT1 expression recovered IL8 and MMP3 expression levels back to baseline, indicating that both are direct targets of NFAT1. Moreover, in vivo studies demonstrated that NFAT1 and MMP3 promoted melanoma tumor growth and lung metastasis. Collectively, our findings assign a new role for NFAT1 in melanoma progression, underscoring the multifaceted functions that immunomodulatory factors may acquire in an unpredictable tumor microenvironment. Cancer Res; 76(11); 3145-55. ©2016 AACR.

Reduced adenosine-to-inosine miR-455-5p editing promotes melanoma growth and metastasis.

Although recent studies have shown that adenosine-to-inosine (A-to-I) RNA editing occurs in microRNAs (miRNAs), its effects on tumour growth and metastasis are not well understood. We present evidence of CREB-mediated low expression of ADAR1 in metastatic melanoma cell lines and tumour specimens. Re-expression of ADAR1 resulted in the suppression of melanoma growth and metastasis in vivo. Consequently, we identified three miRNAs undergoing A-to-I editing in the weakly metastatic melanoma but not in strongly metastatic cell lines. One of these miRNAs, miR-455-5p, has two A-to-I RNA-editing sites. The biological function of edited miR-455-5p is different from that of the unedited form, as it recognizes a different set of genes. Indeed, wild-type miR-455-5p promotes melanoma metastasis through inhibition of the tumour suppressor gene CPEB1. Moreover, wild-type miR-455 enhances melanoma growth and metastasis in vivo, whereas the edited form inhibits these features. These results demonstrate a previously unrecognized role for RNA editing in melanoma progression.

Why is melanoma so metastatic?

Malignant melanoma is one of the most aggressive cancers and can disseminate from a relatively small primary tumor and metastasize to multiple sites, including the lung, liver, brain, bone, and lymph nodes. Elucidating the molecular and genetic changes that take place during the metastatic process has led to a better understanding of why melanoma is so metastatic. Herein, we describe the unique features that distinguish melanoma from other solid tumors and contribute to the malignant phenotype of melanoma cells. For example, although melanoma cells are highly antigenic, they are extremely efficient at evading host immune response. Melanoma cells share numerous cell surface molecules with vascular cells, are highly angiogenic, are mesenchymal in nature, and possess a higher degree of 'stemness' than do other solid tumors. Finally, analysis of melanoma mutations has revealed that the gene expression profile of malignant melanoma is different from that of other cancers. Elucidating these molecular and genetic processes in highly metastatic melanoma can lead to the development of improved treatment and individualized therapy options.

Use of Cre-lox technology to analyze integrin functions in astrocytes.

Astrocytes communicate with the vascular endothelium via direct cell-cell contacts as well as a variety of secreted growth factors and extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Integrins are heterodimeric cell surface receptors for ECM protein ligands, and many integrin subunits are expressed in astrocytes. Here, we will discuss gene deletion strategies in mice that have deciphered functions for specific integrins in astrocyte-endothelial cell adhesion and signaling. Specifically, we will detail how Cre-lox molecular genetic techniques have revealed important roles for integrin αvß8 in regulating cerebral blood vessel development and homeostasis. First, we will detail how to generate Cre-lox mutant mouse models that our group and others have used to study αvß8 integrin in embryonic astroglial progenitors and postnatal astrocytes. Second, we will discuss how viral-delivered Cre can be used to acutely delete integrin genes in astrocytes within defined anatomic regions of the brain. Third, detailed in vivo methods to verify Cre-mediated gene recombination in astrocytes will be presented. Lastly, we will present one experimental strategy to determine how integrin gene deletion affects astrocyte-endothelial cell coupling in the CNS. While this review focuses on the generation and characterization of mice lacking αvß8 integrin, these experimental strategies can be expanded to analyze other cell adhesion and signaling genes important for astroglial-mediated regulation of blood vessel development and homeostasis.

Galectin-3 contributes to melanoma growth and metastasis via regulation of NFAT1 and autotaxin.

Melanoma is the deadliest form of skin cancer in which patients with metastatic disease have a 5-year survival rate of less than 10%. Recently, the overexpression of a ß-galactoside binding protein, galectin-3 (LGALS3), has been correlated with metastatic melanoma in patients. We have previously shown that silencing galectin-3 in metastatic melanoma cells reduces tumor growth and metastasis. Gene expression profiling identified the protumorigenic gene autotaxin (ENPP2) to be downregulated after silencing galectin-3. Here we report that galectin-3 regulates autotaxin expression at the transcriptional level by modulating the expression of the transcription factor NFAT1 (NFATC2). Silencing galectin-3 reduced NFAT1 protein expression, which resulted in decreased autotaxin expression and activity. Reexpression of autotaxin in galectin-3 silenced melanoma cells rescues angiogenesis, tumor growth, and metastasis in vivo. Silencing NFAT1 expression in metastatic melanoma cells inhibited tumor growth and metastatic capabilities in vivo. Our data elucidate a previously unidentified mechanism by which galectin-3 regulates autotaxin and assign a novel role for NFAT1 during melanoma progression.

Beta8 integrin regulates neurogenesis and neurovascular homeostasis in the adult brain.

Central nervous system (CNS) neurovascular units are multicellular complexes consisting of neural cells, blood vessels and a milieu of extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. ECM-mediated adhesion and signaling events within neurovascular units probably contribute to proper CNS development and physiology; however, the molecular mechanisms that control these events remain largely undetermined. Previous studies from our group and others showed that ablation of the ECM receptor, alphavbeta8 integrin, in neural progenitor cells (NPCs) of the embryonic mouse brain results in severe developmental neurovascular pathologies and premature death. Here, we have investigated the functions for this integrin in the adult brain by studying mice harboring a homozygous-null beta8 gene mutation generated on an outbred background that permits survival for several months. We show that adult beta8-/- mice display widespread defects in neurovascular unit homeostasis, including increased numbers of intracerebral blood vessels with pronounced perivascular astrogliosis. Furthermore, in neurogenic regions of the adult brain, where NPCs cluster around blood vessels in neurovascular niches, beta8 integrin is essential for normal control of NPC proliferation and survival. Analysis of NPCs cultured ex vivo reveals that the growth and survival defects correlate, in part, with diminished integrin-mediated activation of latent transforming growth factor beta1 (TGFbeta1), which is an ECM protein ligand for alphavbeta8 integrin. Collectively, these data identify essential functions for beta8 integrin in regulating neurovascular unit physiology in the post-natal mouse brain.