Urology on Display: Museum, Library and Archives of the DGU Duesseldorf-Berlin.

Within a modern changing academic society, it has become necessary and important for scientific collections and museums as decentralized infrastructures for research, teaching, and education, to define and redefine their missions, their goals, their functions, and their strategies to reflect the expectations of a changing society and the academic world, especially museums of scientific associations as possessing critical resources. For example, the dues of the members are on task for education and promotion of the specials values of these communities under aspects of historical marketing and corporate museums which promote heritage.

"He Gave Us the Cornerstone of Sexual Medicine": A Nobel Plan but No Nobel Prize for Eugen Steinach.

This paper reviews the files in the archive of the Nobel Prize Committee for Physiology or Medicine on the Austrian physiologist and pioneering researcher in the emerging fields of urology and sexual medicine: Eugen Steinach (1861-1944). It reconstructs and analyzes why and by whom Steinach was nominated for the Nobel Prize between 1920 and 1938 and discusses the reasons why he never received the award, although the Nobel Committee judged him as prizeworthy. Steinach's Nobel nominee career is extraordinary - not only because of his strong support by renowned international nominators from different scientific and medical disciplines, but also because of the controversial discussions within the Nobel Committee on his achievements, colored by the debates in the international scientific community. The Nobel Prize story adds a new perspective on how contemporary international scholars evaluated Steinach's research on reproduction, "male-making" females, "female-making" males, homosexuality, and the concept of rejuvenation.

Transfer of Knowledge in Urology: A Case Study of Jacob Eduard Polak (1818-1891) and the Introduction of Contemporary Techniques of Lithotomy and Lithotripsy from Vienna to Persia in the Mid-19th Century: A New Analysis of Scientific Papers from the 19th Century.

The middle of the 19th century marks the beginning of a global process of science and knowledge transfer from -Europe to the rest of the world. During the phase of globali-zation, Austrian physician and ethnographer Jacob E. Polak (1818-1891) played a key role in the transmission of practical and scientific reasoning, leading to the development of medical science and clinical care in Persia. In 1851, Polak was commissioned by the Persian court to work as an academic teacher at the first secular institution of higher learning in Teheran, the Dar al-Fonun. After 4 years of teaching and working as a doctor and surgeon, Polak was appointed personal physician to the Qajar king, Naser-ad-Din Shah (r. 1848-1896). During Polak's 9 year stay in Persia, he performed numerous surgical operations with specific focus on lithotomies on men and women of all ages. He documented each operation and collected samples of bladder calculi for the purpose of chemical analysis. After his return to Austria, he published a detailed report on his practice of lithotomy in Persia. This extensive documentation is, we believe, the only known historical evidence that currently exists of the introduction of modern urology to Persia. This study will present Polak's role as a pioneer of modern medicine and lithotomy, and will examine how he introduced the latest achievements of Viennese medicine in the field of operative urology to Persia.

["No discussions about discharge of semen!" : The wild life of the urologist Felix Schlagintweit (1868-1950)]. / "Man lasse sich ja nicht auf Diskussionen über 'Samenverluste' ein" : Das wilde Leben des Urologen Felix Schlagintweit (1868­1950).

Felix Schlagintweit worked in a medical clinic, was co-owner of a sanatorium, had a private practice and wrote fictional books. He massively improved diagnostic methods (e.g., cystoscope) and was interested in psychoanalysis. He rejected the effectiveness of surgical treatment alone and also sole use of psychosomatics. In his view, conservative treatment options were often at least as effective. Because Schlagintweit refused to take part in national socialism, he was purged from professional discourse after 1933 and was only later were his contributions to the history of urology rediscovered.

[Early sources of urologic and venereologic sexual medicine from Vienna : Protagonists at the interface of two new medical specialties]. / Frühe urologische und venerourologische Quellen zur Sexualmedizin aus Wien : Protagonisten im Grenzgebiet zweier neuer medizinischer Spezialfächer.

The Austrian Society for the Promotion of Sexual Medicine and Sexual Health (Österreichische Gesellschaft zur Förderung der Sexualmedizin und der Sexuellen Gesundheit [ÖGFSSG]) was founded in 2014. This foundation looked back upon the increasing efforts to develop this field of academic knowledge since the middle of the 19th century, in which Viennese medicine played an important role. This article highlights key Viennese players who had a particular interest in sexual medicine from a urological perspective around 1900. They worked in the wider area of several disciplines, striving for specialization in the environment of a rapidly growing metropolis with multiple cultural influences. The scholars presented here as a collection of sources contributed to the upswing in sexual medicine through their work by venturing into an area in which no medical or other discipline had previously been able to claim sovereignty of interpretation.

[Looking back on 100 years of board certification for urology in Germany : Formation of a medical subject in the context of specialization and professionalization]. / 100 Jahre Facharzt für Urologie : Zur Ausbildung eines medizinischen Faches im Kontext von Spezialisierung und Professionalisierung.

This article examines the development of urology as an independent medical discipline in Germany, with a particular focus on professionalization and specialization in the 19th and 20th centuries. Based on historical sources, the text illuminates the importance of the German medical profession's further training regulations as an instrument of medical self-administration and the classification of urology as a medical specialty in the Bremen guidelines of 1924, which established board certification in diseases of the urinary organs (urology).

[Sex education for adolescents and adults-Max Hodann (1894-1946) in action]. / Sexualaufklärung für Jugendliche und Erwachsene ­ Max Hodann (1894­1946) in Aktion.

Up to the 1970s, a cultural battle raged in Germany and Europe about the question of the sense to inform and educate young people about gender, sex, and sexuality. One physician realized early that it is important to educate adults about their bodies and their genital and genitourinary disorders. Max Hodann (1894-1946), thus, unintentionally flooded urological practices with countless patients.

[Carl Arthur Kollmann: urologist, venereologist and puppeteer from Leipzig]. / Carl Arthur Kollmann: Urologe, Venerologe und Puppenspieler in Leipzig.

While Felix Martin Oberländer (born in Dresden, Saxony, Germany) is remembered in German-speaking urology and abroad, and his name has been honored since 1997 with an award named after him, the memory and knowledge of Arthur Kollmann of Leipzig (Saxony, Germany) seems to have been nearly forgotten within urology in Germany and abroad. However, the memory of him in other fields of science in which he was involved, e.g., puppets and puppetry-based research, remain vivid up to now.

[Gentle hands bring relief. Thure Brandt's massage as a contemporary document and starting aid for urology]. / Zarte Hände bringen Erleichterung. Thure-Brandt-Massage als Zeitdokument und Gründungshilfe für die Urologie.

Naturopathy and urology have little overlap in the present day, but in the Victorian era it was genital massage that made it clear to the medical profession that training specialized in diseases of the abdomen was necessary for physicians, otherwise patients would seek out lay healers and not clinics. This massage was developed in the 1850s by the Swedish officer Thure Brandt. It remained part of German medical practice until after World War II.

[The genesis of informed consent in the context of medical research ethics 1900-1931]. / Die Genese des Informed Consent im Kontext der medizinischen Forschungsethik 1900­1931.

At the turn of the 20th century, the problem of human experimentation and the need to obtain consent became more important among medical practitioners and the general public. The case of the venereologist Albert Neisser, among others, is used to trace the development of research ethics standards in Germany between the end of the 19th century and 1931. The concept of informed consent, which originated in research ethics, is also of central importance in clinical ethics today.

[Early origins of a physician specializing in sexual medicine from the urological perspective : Max Marcuse (1877-1963)-"physician for skin and urinary diseases"]. / Frühe Quellen eines Sexualmediziners aus urologischer Sicht : Max Marcuse 1877­1963: "Arzt für Haut- und Harnleiden".

The development of sexual medicine starts in Europe in parallel to the evolving clinical specialties urology, venerology, gynecology, neurology/psychiatry, and internal medicine at the end of the 19th century in Berlin. For this reason, we find many examples of fruitful collaboration but also in segregation from each other in defining the new specialties. Max Marcuse, the only one of the well-known Berlin specialists Ivan Bloch, Magnus Hirschfeld, and Albert Moll to survive the Holocaust, was able to publish articles in Palestine and Israel from the 1930s to the 1960s. This year is the 60th anniversary of his death.

[Innovations from the Baltic Sea region: Nils Alwall, Lembit Norviit, Adolfs Martins Steins and the artificial kidney]. / Innovationen im Ostseeraum: Nils Alwall, Lembit Norviit, Adolfs Martins Steins und die künstliche Niere.

In connection with the construction of one of the first practical dialysis machines, medical historians emphasize the work of the Swedish physician Nils Alwall. Together with his colleagues, he developed a device in the 1940s that could implement the combination of dialysis and ultrafiltration with membranes (cellophane tubes). Little known is the involvement of the physicians Lembit Norviit from Estonia and Adolfs Martins Steins from Latvia, both coauthors of the influential research article Clinical extracorporeal dialysis of blood with artificial kidney that was published in The Lancet in 1948 and the transfer of knowledge between Estonian, Latvian and Swedish researchers.

[Felix Martin Oberländer (1851-1915) and his contributions to the medical specialty. A contribution to the history of science in urology and venerology]. / Felix Martin Oberländer (1851­1915) und sein Beitrag zur Wissenschafts- und Fachentwicklung von Urologie und Venerologie.

While the culture of remembrance of Maximilian Nitze, honorary member of the American Urological Association (AUA), has been cultivated, the contributions of Felix Martin Oberländer have been less noticed although he was an editor of the famous urologic journal Zentralblatt für die Krankheiten der Harn- und Sexualorgane (central journal for diseases of the urinary tract and sexual organs), was also honorary member of the AUA in 1902 and the main "founding father" of the German Society of Urology (DGU).

[Granting of venia legendi as an indicator of specialization : Victor von Ivánchich de Margita (1812-1892) "Lecturer for surgery of the urogenital organs" in Vienna in 1851]. / Die Erteilung der Venia legendi als Gradmesser einer einsetzenden Fachdifferenzierung : Victor von Ivánchich de Margita (1812­1892) "Docent für die Chirurgie der Harnorgane" in Wien, 1851.

Alongside Paris, Vienna was one of the early centers of specialization and professionalization in medicine and urology in the 19th century. Especially the 2nd Vienna Medical School (Erna Lesky) with its main representatives Carl Freiherr von Rokitansky (in Czech: Karel Rokytanský; 1804-1878) and Joseph Ritter von Skoda (1895-1881) was able to create the perfect scientific environment for young students to become acquainted with new fields of research often in an interdisciplinary setting, e.g., chemistry, microscopy or pathology in combination with clinical departments like surgery. We analyze the process of habilitation using the example of a urologist to outline this process within the history of science.

[Saints and urology : The right saint for every disease]. / Heilige und die Urologie : "Für jede Krankheit den richtigen Heiligen".

During Medieval and Renaissance times up to the 19th century hagiotherapy was a common part of many different health offerings in society. Within the field of urology, kidney stone disease and venereal (sexually transmitted) diseases were the favourite subjects. Even today, the names of St. Libory, St. Roche, St. Apollinaire and St. Dionysius are common within the culture of remembrance in Europe and the USA.

Why so few Nobel Prizes for cancer researchers? An analysis of Nobel Prize nominations for German physicians with a focus on Ernst von Leyden and Karl Heinrich Bauer.

PURPOSE: To date, 11 scientists have received the Nobel Prize for discoveries directly related to cancer research. This article provides an overview of cancer researchers nominated for the Nobel Prize from 1901 to 1960 with a focus on Ernst von Leyden (1832-1910), the founder of this journal, and Karl Heinrich Bauer (1890-1978). METHODS: We collected nominations and evaluations in the archive of the Nobel committee of physiology or medicine in Sweden to identify research trends and to analyse oncology in a Nobel Prize context. RESULTS: We found a total of 54 nominations citing work on cancer as motivation for 11 candidates based in Germany from 1901 to 1953. In the 1930s, the US became the leading nation of cancer research in a Nobel context with nominees like Harvey Cushing (1869-1939) and George N. Papanicolaou (1883-1962). DISCUSSION: The will of Alfred Nobel stipulates that Nobel laureates should have "conferred the greatest benefit to mankind". Why were then so few cancer researchers recognized with the Nobel medal from 1901 to 1960? Our analysis of the Nobel dossiers points at multiple reasons: (1) Many of the proposed cancer researchers were surgeons, and surgery has a weak track record in a Nobel context; (2) several scholars were put forward for clinical work and not for basic research (historically, the Nobel committee has favoured basic researchers); (3) the scientists were usually not nominated for a single discovery, but rather for a wide range of different achievements.

[Why in Koenigsberg, why Samuel Jessner, why 1921? : History of the first university lectureship for sexology in Germany]. / Warum in Königsberg, warum Samuel Jessner, warum 1921? : Hintergründe zum ersten universitären Lehrauftrag für Sexualwissenschaft in Deutschland.

The dermatologist and venerologist Samuel Jessner (1895-1929) received a lectureship for sexology at the University of Koenigsberg (today: Russian Калининград, Kaliningrad) in 1921. Since 1928 he was also listed as a urologist in the Reichsmedizinalkalender (German Physician Address Calendar). In this article we trace his life and work and ask how Jessner was able to achieve this academic success in the periphery of German sexology and without close ties to its networks. His weak influence in research, his lack of connection to a "school" of sexual science in German-speaking countries, and his Jewish origin were factors that impaired both the recognition of his work among his contemporaries and his recognition in the discipline-specific historiography until today.

[The Alken stages-a German-French affair]. / Die Alken-Stadien ­ eine deutsch-französische Affäre.

Anatomy and pathophysiology of the prostate have gained increasing attention of anatomists and surgeons at the beginning of the 19th century. It was only around 1900 that French and German authors discussed staging of clinical benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) in order to group therapy. From 1970 to the 1990s, staging of the clinical course of BPH was associated with the name of Carl-Erich Alken, a leading figure within the German urological society at that time, although Alken never researched or focused on disease staging. He only presented the three traditional clinical stages originally described in 1888 by Jean Casimir Felix Guyon in a short and often edited and translated student's textbook (1955).

[St. Corona-a patron saint against pandemics? : A short essay on the history of medicine and urology]. / St. Corona ­ eine Fürsprecherin gegen Seuchen? : Eine Miszelle aus der Medizin- und Urologiegeschichte.

The knowledge of hagiography and hagiotherapy still plays an important role in the history of science, especially when focusing on specific aspects of history. While knowledge about St. Liborius persists in urology, knowledge about patron saints for pandemics, especially those who were called upon to treat venereal diseases, has diminished due to the association with nonappropriate sexual behavior.

[Women in urology and the culture of remembrance: Dora Brücke-Teleky (1879-1967)]. / Frauen in der fachkulturellen Erinnerung der Urologie: Dora Brücke-Teleky (1879­1967).

Women have long been underrepresented in medicine and urology, and thus also in the history of medicine and urology. However, within the last 10 years there has been an increase in the focus on gender studies, including the relevant topics within the history of science. Within urology the difficult pathway for women to enter the job in Austria could be analysed, which now allows them to be included in the general culture of remembrance. Within the education process of students, these topics were often dedicated little time and ignored in research.