Early growth response gene 1 (Egr-1) is required for new and reactivated fear memories in the lateral amygdala.

The immediate-early gene early growth response gene-1 (EGR-1, zif-268) has been extensively studied in synaptic plasticity and memory formation in a variety of memory systems. However, a convincing role for EGR-1 in amygdala-dependent memory consolidation processes has yet to emerge. In the present study, we have examined the role of EGR-1 in the consolidation and reconsolidation of amygdala-dependent auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning. In our first series of experiments, we show that EGR-1 is regulated following auditory fear conditioning in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA). Next, we use antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) knockdown of EGR-1 in the LA to show that training-induced expression of EGR-1 is required for memory consolidation of auditory fear conditioning; that is, long-term memory (LTM) is significantly impaired while acquisition and short-term memory (STM) are intact. In a second set of experiments, we show that EGR-1 is regulated in the LA by retrieval of an auditory fear memory. We then show that retrieval-induced expression of EGR-1 in the LA is required for memory reconsolidation of auditory fear conditioning; that is, post-retrieval (PR)-LTM is significantly impaired while memory retrieval and PR-STM are intact. Additional experiments show these effects to be restricted to the LA, to be temporally graded, and unlikely to be due to nonspecific toxicity within the LA. Collectively, our findings strongly implicate a role for EGR-1 in both the initial consolidation and in the reconsolidation of auditory fear memories in the LA.

Synaptic plasticity and NO-cGMP-PKG signaling coordinately regulate ERK-driven gene expression in the lateral amygdala and in the auditory thalamus following Pavlovian fear conditioning.

We have recently hypothesized that NO-cGMP-PKG signaling in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA) during auditory fear conditioning coordinately regulates ERK-driven transcriptional changes in both auditory thalamic (MGm/PIN) and LA neurons that serve to promote pre- and postsynaptic alterations at thalamo-LA synapses, respectively. In the present series of experiments, we show that N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor (NMDAR)-driven synaptic plasticity and NO-cGMP-PKG signaling in the LA regulate the training-induced expression of ERK and the ERK-driven immediate early genes (IEGs) Arc/Arg3.1, c-Fos, and EGR-1 in the LA and the MGm/PIN. Rats receiving intra-LA infusion of the NR2B selective antagonist Ifenprodil, the NOS inhibitor 7-Ni, or the PKG inhibitor Rp-8-Br-PET-cGMPS exhibited significant decreases in ERK activation and in the training-induced expression of all three IEGs in the LA and MGm/PIN while intra-LA infusion of the PKG activator 8-Br-cGMP had the opposite effect. Remarkably, those rats given intra-LA infusion of the membrane impermeable NO scavenger c-PTIO exhibited significant decreases in ERK activation and ERK-driven IEG expression in the MGm/PIN, but not in the LA. Together with our previous experiments, these results suggest that synaptic plasticity and the NO-cGMP-PKG signaling pathway promote fear memory consolidation, in part, by regulating ERK-driven transcription in both the LA and the MGm/PIN. They further suggest that synaptic plasticity in the LA during fear conditioning promotes ERK-driven transcription in MGm/PIN neurons via NO-driven "retrograde signaling."

Identification of plasticity-associated genes regulated by Pavlovian fear conditioning in the lateral amygdala.

Most recent studies aimed at defining the cellular and molecular mechanisms of Pavlovian fear conditioning have focused on protein kinase signaling pathways and the transcription factor cAMP-response element binding protein (CREB) that promote fear memory consolidation in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA). Despite this progress, there still remains a paucity of information regarding the genes downstream of CREB that are required for long-term fear memory formation in the LA. We have adopted a strategy of using microarray technology to initially identify genes induced within the dentate gyrus following in vivo long-term potentiation (LTP) followed by analysis of whether these same genes are also regulated by fear conditioning within the LA. In the present study, we first identified 34 plasticity-associated genes that are induced within 30 min following LTP induction utilizing a combination of DNA microarray, qRT-PCR, and in situ hybridization. To determine whether these genes are also induced in the LA following Pavlovian fear conditioning, we next exposed rats to an auditory fear conditioning protocol or to control conditions that do not support fear learning followed by qRT-PCR on mRNA from microdissected LA samples. Finally, we asked whether identified genes induced by fear learning in the LA are downstream of the extracellular-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling cascade. Collectively, our findings reveal a comprehensive list of genes that represent the first wave of transcription following both LTP induction and fear conditioning that largely belong to a class of genes referred to as 'neuronal activity dependent genes' that are likely calcium, extracellular-regulated kinase/mitogen-activated protein kinase, and CREB-dependent.

The activity-regulated cytoskeletal-associated protein (Arc/Arg3.1) is required for memory consolidation of pavlovian fear conditioning in the lateral amygdala.

The activity-regulated cytoskeletal-associated protein (Arc/Arg3.1) is an immediate early gene that has been widely implicated in hippocampal-dependent learning and memory and is believed to play an integral role in synapse-specific plasticity. Here, we examined the role of Arc/Arg3.1 in amygdala-dependent Pavlovian fear conditioning. We first examined the regulation of Arc/Arg3.1 mRNA and protein after fear conditioning and LTP-inducing stimulation of thalamic inputs to the lateral amygdala (LA). Quantitative real-time PCR, in situ hybridization, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry revealed a significant upregulation of Arc/Arg3.1 mRNA and protein in the LA relative to controls. In behavioral experiments, intra-LA infusion of an Arc/Arg3.1 antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (ODN) was observed to be anatomically restricted to the LA, taken up by LA cells, and to promote significant knockdown of Arc/Arg3.1 protein. Rats given intra-LA infusions of multiple doses of the Arc/Arg3.1 ODN showed an impairment of LTM (tested approximately 24 later), but no deficit in STM (tested 3 h later) relative to controls infused with scrambled ODN. Finally, to determine whether upregulation of Arc/Arg3.1 occurs downstream of ERK/MAPK activation, we examined Arc/Arg3.1 expression in rats given intra-LA infusion of the MEK inhibitor U0126. Relative to vehicle controls, infusion of U0126 impaired training-induced increases in Arc/Arg3.1 expression. These findings suggest that Arc/Arg3.1 expression in the amygdala is required for fear memory consolidation, and further suggest that Arc/Arg3.1 regulation in the LA is downstream of the ERK/MAPK signaling pathway.

Regulation of Garcinol on Histone Acetylation in the Amygdala and on the Reconsolidation of a Cocaine-Associated Memory.

Exposure to drug-related cues often disrupts abstinence from cocaine use by triggering memories of drug effects, leading to craving and possible relapse. One prospective method of treatment is weakening cocaine-associated memories via impairment of memory reconsolidation. Previous experiments have shown that systemic injection of the amnestic agent garcinol impairs the reconsolidation of cocaine-cue memories in a temporally constrained, cue-specific, and persistent manner. Here, we investigated garcinol's effect on cocaine-cue memory reconsolidation when administered to the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA), as well as its epigenetic activity following systemic garcinol administration and also when given in conjunction with trichostatin A (TSA), a histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor. Rats received 12 days of cocaine self-administration training during which time an active lever press resulted in an i.v. cocaine infusion that was concurrently paired with the presentation of a light/tone cue. After 8 days of lever extinction, rats received a memory reactivation session followed by a cue-induced reinstatement test. Intra-LA garcinol following memory reactivation significantly impaired reconsolidation only if the memory was reactivated. Additional studies revealed a significant reduction in histone H3 K27 acetylation and reduced expression of the immediate-early genes Arc and Egr-1 in the LA. When administered alone, TSA enhanced the reinstatement of a cocaine-cue memory, an effect that was prevented when garcinol was concurrently administered. These data indicate the LA is a key structure responsive to garcinol, suggest that one of garcinol's mechanisms of action is through the reduction of memory-related gene expression in the LA, implicate changes in histone acetylation in memory reconsolidation, and support garcinol as a potential therapeutic tool for sustaining abstinence.

The Naturally Occurring Compound Garcinia Indica Selectively Impairs the Reconsolidation of a Cocaine-Associated Memory.

Sustained abstinence from cocaine use is frequently compromised by exposure to environmental stimuli that have previously been strongly associated with drug taking. Such cues trigger memories of the effects of the drug, leading to craving and potential relapse. Our work has demonstrated that manipulating cocaine-cue memories by destabilizing them through interfering with the reconsolidation process is one potential therapeutic tool by which to prolong abstinence. Here, we examine the use of the naturally occurring amnestic agent garcinol to manipulate an established cocaine-cue memory. Rats underwent 12 days of cocaine self-administration training during which time active lever presses resulted in an i.v. infusion of cocaine that was paired with a light/tone cue. Next rats underwent lever extinction for 8 days followed by light/tone reactivation and a test of cue-induced cocaine-seeking behavior. Systemic injection of garcinol 30 min after reactivation significantly impaired the reconsolidation of the cocaine-associated cue memory. Further testing revealed that garcinol had no effect on drug-induced cocaine-seeking, but was capable of blocking the initial conditioned reinforcing properties of the cue and prevents the acquisition of a new response. Additional experiments showed that the effects of garcinol are specific to reactivated memories only, temporally constrained, cue-specific, long-lasting, and persist following extended cocaine access. These data provide strong evidence that the naturally occurring compound, garcinol, may be a potentially useful tool to sustain abstinence from drug abuse.

A diet enriched with curcumin impairs newly acquired and reactivated fear memories.

Curcumin, a yellow-pigment compound found in the popular Indian spice turmeric (Curcuma longa), has been extensively investigated for its anti-inflammatory, chemopreventative, and antidepressant properties. Here, we examined the efficacy of dietary curcumin at impairing the consolidation and reconsolidation of a Pavlovian fear memory, a widely studied animal model of traumatic memory formation in posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). We show that a diet enriched with 1.5% curcumin prevents the training-related elevation in the expression of the immediate early genes (IEGs) Arc/Arg3.1 and Egr-1 in the lateral amygdala (LA) and impairs the 'consolidation' of an auditory Pavlovian fear memory; short-term memory (STM) is intact, whereas long-term memory (LTM) is significantly impaired. Next, we show that dietary curcumin impairs the 'reconsolidation' of a recently formed auditory Pavlovian fear memory; fear memory retrieval (reactivation) and postreactivation (PR)-STM are intact, whereas PR-LTM is significantly impaired. Additional experiments revealed that dietary curcumin is also effective at impairing the reconsolidation of an older, well-consolidated fear memory. Furthermore, we observed that fear memories that fail to reconsolidate under the influence of dietary curcumin are impaired in an enduring manner; unlike extinguished fear memories, they are not subject to reinstatement or renewal. Collectively, our findings indicate that a diet enriched with curcumin is capable of impairing fear memory consolidation and reconsolidation processes, findings that may have important clinical implications for the treatment of disorders such as PTSD that are characterized by unusually strong and persistently reactivated fear memories.

Chronic corticosterone exposure persistently elevates the expression of memory-related genes in the lateral amygdala and enhances the consolidation of a Pavlovian fear memory.

Chronic exposure to stress has been widely implicated in the development of anxiety disorders, yet relatively little is known about the long-term effects of chronic stress on amygdala-dependent memory formation. Here, we examined the effects of a history of chronic exposure to the stress-associated adrenal steroid corticosterone (CORT) on the consolidation of a fear memory and the expression of memory-related immediate early genes (IEGs) in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA). Rats received chronic exposure to CORT (50 µg/ml) in their drinking water for 2 weeks and were then titrated off the CORT for an additional 6 days followed by a 2 week 'wash-out' period consisting of access to plain water. Rats were then either sacrificed to examine the expression of memory-related IEG expression in the LA or given auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning. We show that chronic exposure to CORT leads to a persistent elevation in the expression of the IEGs Arc/Arg3.1 and Egr-1 in the LA. Further, we show that rats with a history of chronic CORT exposure exhibit enhanced consolidation of a fear memory; short-term memory (STM) is not affected, while long-term memory (LTM) is significantly enhanced. Treatment with the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine following the chronic CORT exposure period was observed to effectively reverse both the persistent CORT-related increases in memory-related IEG expression in the LA and the CORT-related enhancement in fear memory consolidation. Our findings suggest that chronic exposure to CORT can regulate memory-related IEG expression and fear memory consolidation processes in the LA in a long-lasting manner and that treatment with fluoxetine can reverse these effects.

The neuronal PAS domain protein 4 (Npas4) is required for new and reactivated fear memories.

The Neuronal PAS domain protein 4 (Npas4) is a neuronal activity-dependent immediate early gene that has recently been identified as a transcription factor which regulates the transcription of genes that control inhibitory synapse development and synaptic plasticity. The role Npas4 in learning and memory, however, is currently unknown. Here, we systematically examine the role of Npas4 in auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning, an amygdala-dependent form of emotional learning. In our first series of experiments, we show that Npas4 mRNA and protein are regulated in the rat lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA) in a learning-dependent manner. Further, knockdown of Npas4 protein in the LA via adeno-associated viral (AAV) mediated gene delivery of RNAi was observed to impair fear memory formation, while innate fear and the expression of fear memory were not affected. In our second series of experiments, we show that Npas4 protein is regulated in the LA by retrieval of an auditory fear memory and that knockdown of Npas4 in the LA impairs retention of a reactivated, but not a non-reactivated, fear memory. Collectively, our findings provide the first comprehensive look at the functional role of Npas4 in learning and memory.

Epigenetic alterations are critical for fear memory consolidation and synaptic plasticity in the lateral amygdala.

Epigenetic mechanisms, including histone acetylation and DNA methylation, have been widely implicated in hippocampal-dependent learning paradigms. Here, we have examined the role of epigenetic alterations in amygdala-dependent auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning and associated synaptic plasticity in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA) in the rat. Using Western blotting, we first show that auditory fear conditioning is associated with an increase in histone H3 acetylation and DNMT3A expression in the LA, and that training-related alterations in histone acetylation and DNMT3A expression in the LA are downstream of ERK/MAPK signaling. Next, we show that intra-LA infusion of the histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor TSA increases H3 acetylation and enhances fear memory consolidation; that is, long-term memory (LTM) is enhanced, while short-term memory (STM) is unaffected. Conversely, intra-LA infusion of the DNA methyltransferase (DNMT) inhibitor 5-AZA impairs fear memory consolidation. Further, intra-LA infusion of 5-AZA was observed to impair training-related increases in H3 acetylation, and pre-treatment with TSA was observed to rescue the memory consolidation deficit induced by 5-AZA. In our final series of experiments, we show that bath application of either 5-AZA or TSA to amygdala slices results in significant impairment or enhancement, respectively, of long-term potentiation (LTP) at both thalamic and cortical inputs to the LA. Further, the deficit in LTP following treatment with 5-AZA was observed to be rescued at both inputs by co-application of TSA. Collectively, these findings provide strong support that histone acetylation and DNA methylation work in concert to regulate memory consolidation of auditory fear conditioning and associated synaptic plasticity in the LA.

Synaptic plasticity and NO-cGMP-PKG signaling regulate pre- and postsynaptic alterations at rat lateral amygdala synapses following fear conditioning.

In vertebrate models of synaptic plasticity, signaling via the putative "retrograde messenger" nitric oxide (NO) has been hypothesized to serve as a critical link between functional and structural alterations at pre- and postsynaptic sites. In the present study, we show that auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning is associated with significant and long-lasting increases in the expression of the postsynaptically-localized protein GluR1 and the presynaptically-localized proteins synaptophysin and synapsin in the lateral amygdala (LA) within 24 hrs following training. Further, we show that rats given intra-LA infusion of either the NR2B-selective antagonist Ifenprodil, the NOS inhibitor 7-Ni, or the PKG inhibitor Rp-8-Br-PET-cGMPS exhibit significant decreases in training-induced expression of GluR1, synaptophysin, and synapsin immunoreactivity in the LA, while those rats infused with the PKG activator 8-Br-cGMP exhibit a significant increase in these proteins in the LA. In contrast, rats given intra-LA infusion of the NO scavenger c-PTIO exhibit a significant decrease in synapsin and synaptophysin expression in the LA, but no significant impairment in the expression of GluR1. Finally, we show that intra-LA infusions of the ROCK inhibitor Y-27632 or the CaMKII inhibitor KN-93 impair training-induced expression of GluR1, synapsin, and synaptophysin in the LA. These findings suggest that the NO-cGMP-PKG, Rho/ROCK, and CaMKII signaling pathways regulate fear memory consolidation, in part, by promoting both pre- and post-synaptic alterations at LA synapses. They further suggest that synaptic plasticity in the LA during auditory fear conditioning promotes alterations at presynaptic sites via NO-driven "retrograde signaling".

A role for nitric oxide-driven retrograde signaling in the consolidation of a fear memory.

In both invertebrate and vertebrate models of synaptic plasticity, signaling via the putative "retrograde messenger" nitric oxide (NO) has been hypothesized to serve as a critical link between functional and structural alterations at pre- and postsynaptic sites. However, while in vitro models of synaptic plasticity have consistently implicated NO signaling in linking postsynaptic induction mechanisms with accompanying presynaptic changes, a convincing role of such "retrograde signaling" in mammalian memory formation has remained elusive. Using auditory Pavlovian fear conditioning, we show that synaptic plasticity and NO signaling in the lateral nucleus of the amygdala (LA) regulate the expression of the ERK-driven immediate early gene early growth response gene I (EGR-1) in regions of the auditory thalamus that are presynaptic to the LA. Further, antisense knockdown of EGR-1 in the auditory thalamus impairs both fear memory consolidation and the training-induced elevation of two presynaptically localized proteins in the LA. These findings indicate that synaptic plasticity and NO signaling in the LA during auditory fear conditioning promote alterations in ERK-driven gene expression in auditory thalamic neurons that are required for both fear memory consolidation as well as presynaptic correlates of fear memory formation in the LA, and provide general support for a role of NO as a "retrograde signal" in mammalian memory formation.