Differences in Polyamine Content between Human Milk and Infant Formulas.

Human milk is the gold standard for nutrition during the first months of life, but when breastfeeding is not possible, it may be replaced by infant formulas, either partially or totally. Polyamines, which play an important role in intestinal maturation and the development of the immune system, are found both in human milk and infant formulas, the first exogenous source of these compounds for the newborn. The aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence and evolution of polyamines in human milk during the first semester of lactation and to compare the polyamine content with that of infant formulas. In total, 30 samples of human milk provided by six mothers during the first five months of lactation as well as 15 different types of infant formulas were analyzed using UHPLC-FL. Polyamines were detected in all human milk samples but with great variation among mothers. Spermidine and spermine levels tended to decrease during the lactation period, while putrescine remained practically unchanged. Considerable differences were observed in the polyamine contents and profiles between human milk and infant formulas, with concentrations being up to 30 times lower in the latter. The predominant polyamines in human milk were spermidine and spermine, and putrescine in infant formulas.

Influence of Breastfeeding Factors on Polyamine Content in Human Milk.

The polyamine content of human breast milk, which is the first exogenous source of polyamines for the newborn, can be affected by several factors associated with the mother, the infant, or breastfeeding itself. The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of different breastfeeding factors on the polyamines found in human milk. For this study, a cohort of 83 mothers was considered for up to 4 months, and a subgroup of 33 mothers were followed during the first six months of breastfeeding. Two breast milk samples were collected at each sampling point (foremilk and hindmilk) and the polyamine content was determined by UHPLC-FL. Polyamine levels varied considerably between the mothers and tended to decrease over time. Putrescine was the minor polyamine, whereas spermidine and spermine contents were very similar. The concentrations of the three polyamines were significantly higher in hindmilk than foremilk (p < 0.001). Spermidine and spermine levels decreased significantly through the lactation progress (p < 0.05). Finally, slightly higher levels of polyamines were observed in the milk of mothers providing partial, rather than full, breastfeeding, although the differences were not significant. The polyamine content in human milk was found to change during a single feed (foremilk versus hindmilk) and as lactation progressed, mainly in response to the specific circumstances of the newborn.

Occurrence of Polyamines in Foods and the Influence of Cooking Processes.

Dietary polyamines are involved in different aspects of human health and play an important role in the prevention of certain chronic conditions such as cardiovascular diseases and diabetes. Different polyamines can be found in all foods in variable amounts. Moreover, several culinary practices have been reported to modify the content and profile of these bioactive compounds in food although experimental data are still scarce and even contradictory. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the occurrence of polyamines in a large range of foods and to assess the effect of different cooking processes on the polyamine content of a few of them. The highest level of polyamines was found in wheat germ (440.6 mg/kg). Among foods of a plant origin, high levels of total polyamines over 90 mg/kg were determined in mushrooms, green peppers, peas, citrus fruit, broad beans and tempeh with spermidine being predominant (ranging from 54 to 109 mg/kg). In foods of an animal origin, the highest levels of polyamines, above all putrescine (42-130 mg/kg), were found in raw milk, hard and blue cheeses and in dry-fermented sausages. Regarding the influence of different domestic cooking processes, polyamine levels in food were reduced by up to 64% by boiling and grilling but remained practically unmodified by microwave and sous-vide cooking.

Influence of the Type of Breastfeeding and Human Milk Polyamines on Infant Anthropometric Parameters.

Feeding choices in the early months of life are key determinants of growth during infancy. Polyamines participate in cell proliferation and differentiation, and it has also been suggested that polyamine metabolism plays a role in adipogenesis. As the main exogenous source of polyamines in the infant is human milk, the aim of this work was to study if the type of breastfeeding received and the polyamine intake from human milk has an influence on infant anthropometric parameters. A cohort of 78 full-term healthy newborns was followed up until 4 months of age; 55 were fully and 23 partially breastfed. Anthropometric measurements were taken at 2 and 4 months, when human milk samples were also collected for analysis of polyamine content by UHPLC-FL. Fully breastfed infants had a better anthropometric profile than those partially breastfed (p < 0.05). Furthermore, polyamine intake in partially breastfed infants was significantly lower compared to those fully breastfed. However, only two of the 15 anthropometric indicators evaluated (triceps skinfold and mean upper arm circumference) showed a significant inverse association with polyamine content in human milk and intake (p < 0.05). Infant growth and body composition differ according to the type of breastfeeding received. Based on the weak associations between polyamines and anthropometric indicators, it is not possible to conclude the influence of polyamines in infant growth and body composition.

Is there gender discrimination in full breastfeeding in Mexico?

INTRODUCTION: Objective: differences have been shown between males and females in terms of the prevalence of malnutrition in different parts of the world, which point to discrimination against females, including with respect to full breastfeeding. Therefore, the objective was to show that exclusive breastfeeding is less common for females in a population of medium-low and low socioeconomic strata. Methods: this was a cross-sectional analysis of a sample of 170 mother-infant dyads according to type of feeding (74 full breastfeeding, 57 partial breastfeeding and 39 human milk substitutes) at the Nuevo Hospital Civil de Guadalajara. Dependent variables according to type of feeding: full breastfeeding (exclusive and/or predominant), partial breastfeeding, and human milk substitutes. Independent variables: demographic data, schooling, occupation of mothers and/or parents, and family income. Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney U and Chi-square tests and odds ratio were used. Results: the probability of full breastfeeding was 3.8 times lower in females than in males. In a non-significant way, the likelihood of full breastfeeding was lower than that of partial breastfeeding, and full breastfeeding was lower than the combination of partial breastfeeding and human milk substitutes in females. Full breastfeeding and partial breastfeeding were lower than human milk substitutes, and partial breastfeeding was lower than human milk substitutes in females. Conclusion: there is a differentiated character in the privilege of full breastfeeding; it is four times lower in females than in males.

INTRODUCCIÓN: Objetivo: se han observado diferencias entre niñas y varones en la prevalencia de desnutrición en diferentes partes del mundo, lo que apunta a la discriminación contra las niñas, incluso con respecto a la lactancia materna completa. El objetivo fue mostrar que la lactancia completa es menos común en las niñas en una población de estratos socioeconómicos medio-bajo y bajo. Métodos: se realizó un análisis transversal de una muestra de 170 díadas madre-lactante según el tipo de alimentación (74 de lactancia completa, 57 de lactancia parcial y 39 sucedáneos de la leche humana) en el Nuevo Hospital Civil de Guadalajara. Variables dependientes según el tipo de alimentación: lactancia completa (exclusiva y/o predominante), lactancia parcial y sucedáneos de leche humana. Variables independientes: datos demográficos, escolaridad, ocupación de madres y/o padres e ingresos familiares. Se utilizaron pruebas de Kruskal-Wallis, Mann-Whitney U y Chi-cuadrado y razón de momios. Resultados: la probabilidad de lactancia materna completa fue 3,8 veces menor en niñas que en varones. De manera no significativa, la probabilidad de lactancia completa fue menor que la de lactancia parcial y la frecuencia de lactancia completa fue menor que la combinación de lactancia parcial y sucedáneos de leche humana en niñas. La frecuencia de lactancia completa y lactancia parcial fue menor que los sucedáneos de leche humana y la lactancia parcial fue menos frecuente que los sucedáneos de leche humana en niñas. Conclusión: hay un carácter diferenciado en el privilegio de ofrecer lactancia materna completa. Es cuatro veces menor en las niñas que en varones.

Polyamines in Food.

The polyamines spermine, spermidine, and putrescine are involved in various biological processes, notably in cell proliferation and differentiation, and also have antioxidant properties. Dietary polyamines have important implications in human health, mainly in the intestinal maturation and in the differentiation and development of immune system. The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effect of polyamine can also play an important role in the prevention of chronic diseases such as cardiovascular diseases. In addition to endogenous synthesis, food is an important source of polyamines. Although there are no recommendations for polyamine daily intake, it is known that in stages of rapid cell growth (i.e., in the neonatal period), polyamine requirements are high. Additionally, de novo synthesis of polyamines tends to decrease with age, which is why their dietary sources acquire a greater importance in an aging population. Polyamine daily intake differs among to the available estimations, probably due to different dietary patterns and methodologies of data collection. Polyamines can be found in all types of foods in a wide range of concentrations. Spermidine and spermine are naturally present in food whereas putrescine could also have a microbial origin. The main polyamine in plant-based products is spermidine, whereas spermine content is generally higher in animal-derived foods. This article reviews the main implications of polyamines for human health, as well as their content in food and breast milk and infant formula. In addition, the estimated levels of polyamines intake in different populations are provided.