Health care seeking patterns and determinants of out-of-pocket expenditure for malaria for the children under-five in Uganda.

BACKGROUND: The objectives of this study were to assess the patterns of treatment seeking behaviour for children under five with malaria; and to examine the statistical relationship between out-of-pocket expenditure (OOP) on malaria treatment for under-fives and source of treatment, place of residence, education and wealth characteristics of Uganda households. OOP expenditure on health care is now a development concern due to its negative effect on households' ability to finance consumption of other basic needs. METHODS: The 2009 Uganda Malaria Indicator Survey was the source of data on treatment seeking behaviour for under-five children with malaria, and patterns and levels of OOP expenditure for malaria treatment. Binomial logit and Log-lin regression models were estimated. In logit model the dependent variable was a dummy (1=incurred some OOP, 0=none incurred) and independent variables were wealth quintiles, rural versus urban, place of treatment, education level, sub-region, and normal duty disruption. The dependent variable in Log-lin model was natural logarithm of OOP and the independent variables were the same as mentioned above. RESULTS: Five key descriptive analysis findings emerge. First, malaria is quite prevalent at 44.7% among children below the age of five. Second, a significant proportion seeks treatment (81.8%). Third, private providers are the preferred option for the under-fives for the treatment of malaria. Fourth, the majority pay about 70.9% for either consultation, medicines, transport or hospitalization but the biggest percent of those who pay, do so for medicines (54.0%). Fifth, hospitalization is the most expensive at an average expenditure of US$7.6 per child, even though only 2.9% of those that seek treatment are hospitalized.The binomial logit model slope coefficients for the variables richest wealth quintile, Private facility as first source of treatment, and sub-regions Central 2, East central, Mid-eastern, Mid-western, and Normal duties disrupted were positive and statistically significant at 99% level of confidence. On the other hand, the Log-lin model slope coefficients for Traditional healer, Sought treatment from one source, Primary educational level, North East, Mid Northern and West Nile variables had a negative sign and were statistically significant at 95% level of confidence. CONCLUSION: The fact that OOP expenditure is still prevalent and private provider is the preferred choice, increasing public provision may not be the sole answer. Plans to improve malaria treatment should explicitly incorporate efforts to protect households from high OOP expenditures. This calls for provision of subsidies to enable the private sector to reduce prices, regulation of prices of malaria medicines, and reduction/removal of import duties on such medicines.

To what extent does recurrent government health expenditure in Uganda reflect its policy priorities?

BACKGROUND: The National Health Policy 2000 - 2009 and Health sector strategic plans I & II emphasized that Primary Health Care (PHC) would be the main strategy for national development and would be operationalized through provision of the minimum health care package. Commitment was to spend an increasing proportion of the health budget for the provision of the basic minimum package of health services which was interpreted to mean increasing spending at health centre level. This analysis was undertaken to gain a better understanding of changes in the way recurrent funding is allocated in the health sector in Uganda and to what extent it has been in line with agreed policy priorities. METHODS: Government recurrent wage and non-wage expenditures - based on annual releases by the Uganda Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development were compiled for the period 1997/1998 to financial year 2007/2008. Additional data was obtained from a series of Ministry of Health annual health sector reports as well as other reports. Data was verified by key government officials in Ministry of Finance, Planning and Economic Development and Ministry of Health. Analysis of expenditures was done at sector level, by the different levels in the health care system and the different levels of care. RESULTS: There was a pronounced increase in the amount of funds released for recurrent expenditure over the review period fueled mainly by increases in the wage component. PHC services showed the greatest increase, increasing more than 70 times in ten years. At hospital level, expenditures remained fairly constant for the last 10 years with a slight reduction in the wage component. CONCLUSION: The policy aspiration of increasing spending on PHC was attained but key aspects that would facilitate its realization were not addressed. At any given level of funding for the health sector, there is need to work out an optimal balance in investment in the different inputs to ensure efficiency in health spending. Equally important is the balance in investment between hospitals and health centers. There is a need to look comprehensively at what it takes to provide PHC services and invest accordingly.

Assessing the risk of self-diagnosed malaria in urban informal settlements of Nairobi using self-reported morbidity survey.

BACKGROUND: Because of the belief that Nairobi is a low risk zone for malaria, little empirical data exists on malaria risk in the area. The aim of this study was to explore the risk of perceived malaria and some associated factors in Nairobi informal settlements using self-reported morbidity survey. METHODS: The survey was conducted from May to August 2004 on 7,288 individuals in two informal settlements of Nairobi. Participants were asked to report illnesses they experienced in the past 14 days. Logistic regression was used to estimate the odds of perceived-malaria. The model included variables such as site of residence, age, ethnicity and number of reported symptoms. RESULTS: Participants reported 165 illnesses among which malaria was the leading cause (28.1%). The risk of perceived-malaria was significantly higher in Viwandani compared to Korogocho (OR 1.61, 95%CI: 1.10-2.26). Participants in age group 25-39 years had significantly higher odds of perceived-malaria compared to those under-five years (OR 2.07, 95%CI: 1.43-2.98). The Kikuyu had reduced odds of perceived-malaria compared to other ethnic groups. Individuals with five and more symptoms had higher odds compared to those with no symptoms (OR 23.69, 95%CI: 12.98-43.23). CONCLUSION: Malaria was the leading cause of illness as perceived by the residents in the two informal settlements. This was rational as the number of reported symptoms was highly associated with the risk of reporting the illness. These results highlight the need for a more comprehensive assessment of malaria epidemiology in Nairobi to be able to offer evidence-based guidance to policy on malaria in Kenya and particularly in Nairobi.

Sleeping arrangements and mosquito net use among under-fives: results from the Uganda Demographic and Health Survey.

BACKGROUND: The Roll Back Malaria Initiative has identified the under-fives as one of the high risk groups for malaria, and one of the strategies to fight malaria in this group is increasing mosquito net use. This implies that there must be selective targeting at the household level such that the children are protected. However, the Roll Back Malaria preferences must be reconciled with those at the household level to take into account household level preferences. METHODS: This paper is based on the 2000-2001 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey data in which information on mosquito net ownership and use was collected. The patterns of household mosquito net ownership and use for children under five years of age were examined using both bi-variate and multivariate analysis. RESULTS: The preferences at the household level seem to be different; children use mosquito nets primarily because they happen to share a bed with their parents. A child who shares a bed with the mother is 21 times more likely to use a mosquito net than his/her counterpart. CONCLUSION: Increasing mosquito net coverage such that 60% (the target for the RBM) of households have at least one mosquito net will not necessarily protect the under-fives. Either the coverage will have to be expanded or appropriate targeting strategies designed.

The feasibility of community-based health insurance in Burkina Faso.

To ensure the acceptability of community-based insurance (CBI) by the community and its sustainability, a feasibility study of CBI was conducted in Burkina Faso, including preference for benefit package of CBI, costing of health services, costing of the benefit package and willingness-to-pay (WTP) for the package. Qualitative methods were used to collect information about preferences for the benefit package. Cost per unit health services, health demand obtained from household survey and physician-judged health needs were used to estimate the cost of the benefit package. The bidding game method was used to elicit household head's WTP for the package. We found that there were strong preferences for inclusion of high-cost healthservices such as operation, essential drugs and consultation fees in the benefit package. It is estimated that the cost of the package per capita was 1673 CFA (demand-based) and 9630 CFA (need-based), including 58% government subsidies (euro 1 = 655 CFA). The average household head with eight household members agreed to pay from 7500 (median) to 9769 CFA (mean) to join the CBI for his/her household. The WTP results were influenced by household characteristics, such as location, household size and age composition. Under certain assumptions (household as the enrolment unit, median household head's WTP as premium for the average household, 50% enrolment rate), it would be feasible to run CBI in Nouna, Burkina Faso if enrolees' health demand did not increase by more than 28% or if the underwriting of the initial losses was covered by extra funds.

Gender's effect on willingness-to-pay for community-based insurance in Burkina Faso.

The purpose was to study gender's effect on willingness-to-pay (WTP) for community-based insurance (CBI) in order to provide information for deciding enrolment unit and setting premium in Burkina Faso. A two-stage cluster sampling was used in the household survey, with each household having the same probability of being selected. One thousand one hundred and seventy-eight men and 1236 women in the 800 households were interviewed. The bidding game approach was used to elicit WTP. We found that compared to male, female had less education, lower income and expenditure, less episodes of diseases and lower ratio of becoming household head, but higher marriage rate. These characteristics influenced the WTP difference between men and women. Men were willing to pay 3666 CFA ($4.89) to join CBI, 928 CFA higher than women were. Education and economic status positively influenced WTP, implying higher years of schooling and economic status and higher WTP. Age and distance to health facility negatively influenced WTP, thus higher age and longer distance and less WTP. Based on the results from this study, we suggest that CBI should be enrolled on the basis of households or villages in order to protect vulnerable persons, such as the aged, women and the poor. In setting premium a policy-maker needs to take into account costs of the CBI benefits package, possible subsidies from government and other agencies and WTP information. WTP should never be taken as a premium because it only provides some information for the respondents' financial acceptability for a certain benefits package.

The health system cost of post-abortion care in Uganda.

This article presents estimates based on the research conducted in 2010 of the cost to the Ugandan health system of providing post-abortion care (PAC), filling a gap in knowledge of the cost of unsafe abortion. Thirty-nine public and private health facilities were sampled representing three levels of health care, and data were collected on drugs, supplies, material, personnel time and out-of-pocket expenses. In addition, direct non-medical costs in the form of overhead and capital costs were also measured. Our results show that the average annual PAC cost per client, across five types of abortion complications, was $131. The total cost of PAC nationally, including direct non-medical costs, was estimated to be $13.9 million per year. Satisfying all demand for PAC would raise the national cost to $20.8 million per year. This shows that PAC consumes a substantial portion of the total expenditure in reproductive health in Uganda. Investing more resources in family planning programmes to prevent unwanted and mistimed pregnancies would help reduce health systems costs.

Documenting the individual- and household-level cost of unsafe abortion in Uganda.

CONTEXT: Although Uganda has a restrictive abortion law, illegal abortions performed under dangerous conditions are common. Data are lacking, however, on the economic impact of postabortion complications on women and their households. METHODS: Data from a 2011-2012 survey of 1,338 women who received postabortion care at 27 Ugandan health facilities were used to assess the economic consequences of unsafe abortion and subsequent treatment. Information was obtained on treatment costs and on the impact of abortion complications on children in the household, on the productivity of the respondent and other household members, and on changes in their economic circumstances. RESULTS: Most women reported that their unsafe abortion had had one or more adverse effects, including loss of productivity (73%), negative consequences for their children (60%) and deterioration in economic circumstances (34%). Women who had spent one or more nights in a facility receiving postabortion care were more likely than those who had not needed an overnight stay to experience these three consequences (odds ratios, 1.6-2.8), and women who had incurred higher postabortion care expenses were more likely than those with lower expenses to report deterioration in economic circumstances (1.6). Wealthier women were less likely than the poorest women to report that their children had suffered negative consequences (0.4-0.5). CONCLUSIONS: The impact of complications of unsafe abortion and the expense of treating them are substantial for Ugandan women and their households. Strategies to reduce the number of unsafe procedures, such as by expanding access to contraceptives to prevent unintended pregnancies, are urgently needed.

Abolition of user fees: the Uganda paradox.

Inadequate health financing is one of the major challenges health systems in low-income countries currently face. Health financing reforms are being implemented with an increasing interest in policies that abolish user fees. Data from three nationally representative surveys conducted in Uganda in 1999/2000, 2002/03 and 2005/06 were used to investigate the impact of user fee abolition on the attainment of universal coverage objectives. An increase in illness reporting was noted over the three surveys, especially among the poorer quintiles. An increase in utilization was registered in the period immediately following the abolition of user fees and was most pronounced in the poorest quintile. Overall, there was an increase in utilization in both public and private health care delivery sectors, but only at clinic and health centre level, not at hospitals. Our study shows important changes in health-care-seeking behaviour. In 2002/03, the poorest population quintile started using government health centres more often than private clinics whereas in 1999/2000 private clinics were the main source of health care. The richest quintile has increasingly used private clinics. Overall, it appears that the private sector remains a significant source of health care. Following abolition of user fees, we note an increase in the use of lower levels of care with subsequent reductions in use of hospitals. Total annual average expenditures on health per household remained fairly stable between the 1999/2000 and 2002/03 surveys. There was, however, an increase of US$21 in expenditure between the 2002/03 and 2005/06 surveys. Abolition of user fees improved access to health services and efficiency in utilization. On the negative side is the fact that financial protection is yet to be achieved. Out-of-pocket expenditure remains high and mainly affects the poorer population quintiles. A dual system seems to have emerged where wealthier population groups are switching to the private sector.

The prevention and control of HIV/AIDS, TB and Vector-borne diseases in informal settlements: challenges, opportunities and insights.

Today's urban settings are redefining the field of public health. The complex dynamics of cities, with their concentration of the poorest and most vulnerable (even within the developed world) pose an urgent challenge to the health community. While retaining fidelity to the core principles of disease prevention and control, major adjustments are needed in the systems and approaches to effectively reach those with the greatest health risks (and the least resilience) within today's urban environment. This is particularly relevant to infectious disease prevention and control. Controlling and preventing HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis and vector-borne diseases like malaria are among the key global health priorities, particularly in poor urban settings. The challenge in slums and informal settlements is not in identifying which interventions work, but rather in ensuring that informal settlers: (1) are captured in health statistics that define disease epidemiology and (2) are provided opportunities equal to the rest of the population to access proven interventions. Growing international attention to the plight of slum dwellers and informal settlers, embodied by Goal 7 Target 11 of the Millennium Development Goals, and the considerable resources being mobilized by the Global Fund to fight AIDS, TB and malaria, among others, provide an unprecedented potential opportunity for countries to seriously address the structural and intermediate determinants of poor health in these settings. Viewed within the framework of the "social determinants of disease" model, preventing and controlling HIV/AIDS, TB and vector-borne diseases requires broad and integrated interventions that address the underlying causes of inequity that result in poorer health and worse health outcomes for the urban poor. We examine insights into effective approaches to disease control and prevention within poor urban settings under a comprehensive social development agenda.

Examining out-of-pocket expenditure on health care in Nouna, Burkina Faso: implications for health policy.

OBJECTIVE: To examine household out-of-pocket expenditure on health care, particularly malaria treatment, in rural Burkina Faso. METHOD: Comprehensive analysis of out-of-pocket expenditure on health care through a descriptive analysis and a second, multivariate analysis using the Tobit model with emphasis on malaria, based on 800 urban and rural households in Nouna health district. RESULTS: Households will spend less on malaria, either in or outside the health facility, if given the choice to do so, because they feel confident to self-treat malaria. Seeking health care from a qualified health worker incurs more out-of-pocket expenditure than self-treatment and traditional healers, and if necessary, households sell off assets to offset the expenditure. More than 80% of household out-of-pocket expenditure is allocated to drugs. CONCLUSION: This has policy implications for malaria control and the Roll Back Malaria Initiative. Communities need to be educated on the risks of malaria complications and the potential risk of inappropriate diagnosis and treatment. Drug or health services pricing policy needs to create an incentive to use the health services. In the fight against malaria, building alliances between households, traditional healers and health workers is essential.

Costing health care interventions at primary health facilities in Nouna, Burkina Faso.

The main objective was to estimate sector wide disease specific cost of health care intervention at health facilities in Nouna, Burkina Faso. A step-down full costing procedure was used to estimate the costs of interventions for 33 ICD-9 diseases using the diagnosis and treatment algorithms developed by the Ministry of Health and used in the health facilities. These provide context-specific cost estimates that are important input in any economic evaluation. The study was based on four first line health facilities in northwest Burkina Faso serving a population of about 60,000 under a demographic surveillance System (DSS). This paper reports sectoral context and disease specific cost estimates of health care interventions at first line health facilities in rural Burkina Faso. Case management with hospitalization has the highest cost of US$27.6 and family planning is the least costly with US$0.51 per unit. In addition, the government and development partners contribute 58% of the total resources used at the health facilities. These intervention costs provide a valuable source of information that feeds into economic evaluations and allows comparisons from a total health perspective for sectoral resource allocation decisions.

Willingness-to-pay for community-based insurance in Burkina Faso.

PURPOSE: To study the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for a proposed community-based health insurance (CBI) scheme in order to provide information about the relationship between the premium that is required to cover the costs of the scheme and expected insurance enrollment levels. In addition, factors that influence WTP were to be identified. METHODS: Data were collected from a household survey using a two-stage cluster sampling approach, with each household having the same probability of being selected. Interviews were conducted with 2414 individuals and 705 household heads. The take-it-or-leave-it (TIOLI) and the bidding game were used to elicit WTP. RESULTS: The average individual was willing to pay 2384 (elicited by the TIOLI) or 3191 (elicited by the bidding game) CFA (3.17 US dollars or 4.25 US dollars) to join CBI for him/herself. The head of household agreed to pay from 6448 (elicited by the TIOLI) or 9769 (elicited by the bidding game) CFA (8.6 US dollars or 13.03 US dollars) to join the health insurance scheme for his/her household. These results were influenced by household and individual ability-to-pay, household and individual characteristics, such as age, sex and education. The two methods yielded similar patterns of estimated WTP, in that higher WTP was obtained for higher income level, higher previous medical expenditure, higher education, younger people and males. A starting point bias was found in the case of the bidding game. CONCLUSIONS: Both TIOLI and bidding game methods can elicit a value of WTP for CBI. The value elicited by the bidding game is higher than by the TIOLI, but the two approaches yielded similar patterns of estimated WTP. WTP information can be used for setting insurance premium. When setting the premiums, it is important to consider differences between the real market and the theoretical one, and between the WTP and the cost of benefits package. The beneficiaries of CBI should be enrolled at the level of households or villages in order to protect vulnerable groups such as women, elders and the poor.

The two faces of enhancing utilization of health-care services: determinants of patient initiation and retention in rural Burkina Faso.

OBJECTIVE: To explore the factors that determine whether a patient will initiate treatment within a system of health-care services, and the factors that determine whether the patient will be retained in the chosen system, in Nouna, rural Burkina Faso. METHODS: The data used were pooled from four rounds of a household survey conducted in Nouna, rural Burkina Faso. The ongoing demographic surveillance system provided a sampling framework for this survey in which 800 households were sampled using a two-stage cluster sampling procedure. More than one treatment episode was observed for a single episode of illness per patient. The multinomial logit model was used to explore the determinants of patient initiation to systems of modern, traditional and home treatment, and a binary logit model was used to explore the determinants of patient retention within the chosen health-care provider system. FINDINGS: The results suggest that the determinants of patient initiation and their subsequent retention are different. Household income, education, urban residence and expected competency of the provider are positive predictors of initiation, but not of retention, for modern health-care services. Only perceived quality of care positively predicted retention in modern health-care services. CONCLUSION: Interventions focusing on patient initiation and patient retention are likely to be different. Policies directed at enhancing initiation for modern health-care services would primarily focus on reducing financial barriers, while those directed at increasing retention would primarily focus on attributes that improve the perceived quality of care.