"This is really something: same place, same day result, same day treatment" women's experiences of testing positive for HPV and receiving same-day treatment in Papua New Guinea: an interpretative phenomenological analysis.

INTRODUCTION: Human papillomavirus (HPV) testing is transforming cervical screening globally. The World Health Organization (WHO) now recommends same-day HPV screen-and-treat for primary cervical screening in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC) but there is a lack of evidence on women's lived experience of testing positive for oncogenic HPV and receiving same-day treatment. This study aimed to address this knowledge gap among women participating in a same-day HPV screen-and-treat (HPV S&T) program in Papua New Guinea. METHODS: As part of a larger qualitative study, this paper explores the lived experiences of 26 women who tested positive for oncogenic HPV and were treated the same day. We analysed the data using the interpretative phenomenological analysis method. All data were managed using Nvivo 12.5. RESULTS: The interpretative phenomenological analysis led to three superordinate themes: 1) facing and alleviating initial worries, (2) transforming the disclosure process, and (3) connecting to their faith. Women's experiences of the same day HPV screen-and-treat were framed by initial emotional reactions to their positive HPV test result, and having access to treatment on the same day, which helped address their worries and fears, and transformed their experience of disclosing their test result and subsequent treatment to family and friends. CONCLUSION: This study shows that, while women experience similar initial emotional reactions, undergoing same day treatment quickly resolved the women's worries, making this program highly acceptable. Overall, women's engagement in the program confirmed its high acceptability and cultural congruence, leaving women feeling empowered and hopeful about their future, and the future of all Papua New Guinea women.

Women's acceptability of a self-collect HPV same-day screen-and-treat program in a high burden setting in the Pacific.

BACKGROUND: A field trial to evaluate a self-collect point-of-care HPV screen-and-treat (HPV S&T) program was implemented in two Well Women Clinics in Papua New Guinea (Papua New Guinea). Assessing the acceptability of a health intervention is a core element of evaluation. In this study, we examined women's acceptability of both self-collection and HPV S&T intervention in Papua New Guinea.  METHODS: Sixty-two semi-structured interviews were conducted with women who had undergone cervical screening in the same-day self-collected HPV screen-and-treat program in Madang and Western Highlands Provinces, Papua New Guinea. Data were thematically analysed using the Theoretical Framework of Acceptability (TFA) and managed using NVivo 12.5. RESULTS: Most women agreed that self-collection was transformative: it helped circumvent the culturally embarrassing pelvic examination and increased their self-efficacy, especially due to the provision of health education, instructions, and pictorial aids. The availability of same-day results, and treatment if indicated, was particularly valued by the women because it reduced the financial and temporal burden to return to the clinic for results. It also meant they did not need to wait anxiously for long periods of time for their results. Women also appreciated the support from, and expertise of, health care workers throughout the process and spoke of trust in the HPV-DNA testing technology. Most women were willing to pay for the service to ensure its sustainability and timely scale-up throughout Papua New Guinea to support access for women in harder to reach areas. CONCLUSION: This study reported very high levels of acceptability from a field trial of self-collection and HPV same-day screen-and-treat. The program was deemed culturally congruent and time efficient. This innovative cervical screening modality could be the 'solution' needed to see wider and more immediate impact and improved outcomes for women in Papua New Guinea and other high-burden, low-resource settings.

DNA methylation at individual CpG-sites of EPB41L3, HTERT and FAM19A4 are useful for detection of cervical high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL) or worse: Analysis of individual CpG-sites outperforms averaging.

Global methylation analysis of gene promoters is promising for detection of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions or worse (HSIL+) in high-risk human papillomavirus (hrHPV)-positive women. However, diagnostic performance of methylation data at individual CpG-sites is limited. We explored methylation for predicting HSIL+ in self- and clinician-collected samples from Papua New Guinea. Methylation of EPB41L3 (1-6 CpG-sites), hTERT (1-10 CpG-sites) and FAM19A4 (1-5 CpG-sites) was assessed through pyrosequencing from 44 HPV+ samples (4 cancers, 19 HSIL, 4 low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (LSIL), 17 normal). New primers were designed for FAM19A4 directed to the first exon region not explored previously. In clinician-collected samples, methylation at CpG-sites 4 and 5 of EPB41L3 were the best HSIL predictors (AUC >0.83) and CpG-site 4 for cancer (0.925). Combination of EPB41L3 sites 2/4 plus FAM19A4 site 1 were the best HSIL+ markers [100% sensitivity, 63.2% specificity]. Methylation at CpG-site 5 of FAM19A4 was the best HSIL predictor (0.67) in self-collected samples, and CpG-sites 1 and 3 of FAM19A4 for cancer (0.77). Combined, FAM19A4 site 1 plus HPV 16/18 detection yielded sensitivity of 82.6% and specificity of 61.9%. In conclusion, methylation at individual CpG-sites of EPB41L3 and FAM19A4 outperformed global analysis and improved HSIL+ detection, warranting further investigation.

Performance of CADM1, MAL and miR124-2 methylation as triage markers for early detection of cervical cancer in self-collected and clinician-collected samples: an exploratory observational study in Papua New Guinea.

OBJECTIVE: WHO recommends human papillomavirus (HPV) testing for cervical screening, with triage of high-risk HPV (hrHPV) positive women. However, there are limitations to effective triage for low-resource, high-burden settings, such as Papua New Guinea. In this exploratory study, we assessed the performance of host methylation as triage tools for predicting high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions (HSIL) in self-collected and clinician-collected samples. DESIGN: Exploratory observational study. SETTING: Provincial hospital, same-day cervical screen-and-treat trial, Papua New Guinea. PARTICIPANTS: 44 hrHPV+women, with paired self/clinician-collected samples (4 squamous cell carcinomas (SCC), 19 HSIL, 4 low-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions, 17 normal). PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES: Methylation levels of CADM1, MAL and miR124-2 analysed by methylation-specific PCRs against the clinical endpoint of HSIL or SCC (HSIL+) measured using liquid-based-cytology/p16-Ki67 stain. RESULTS: In clinician-collected samples, MAL and miR124-2 methylation levels were significantly higher with increasing grade of disease (p=0.0046 and p<0.0015, respectively). miR124-2 was the best predictor of HSIL (area under the curve, AUC 0.819) while MAL of SCC (AUC 0.856). In self-collected samples, MAL best predicted HSIL (AUC 0.595) while miR124-2 SCC (AUC 0.812). Combined miR124-2/MAL methylation yielded sensitivity and specificity for HSIL+ of 90.5% (95% CI 69.6% to 98.8%) and 70% (95% CI 45.7% to 88.1%), respectively, in clinician-collected samples, and 81.8% (95% CI 59.7% to 94.8%) and 47.6% (95% CI 25.7% to 70.2%), respectively, in self-collected samples. miR124-2/MAL plus HPV16/HPV18 improved sensitivity for HSIL+ (95.2%, 95% CI 76.2% to 99.9%) but decreased specificity (55.0%, 95% CI 31.5% to 76.9%). CONCLUSION: miR124-2/MAL methylation is a potential triage strategy for the detection of HSIL/SCC in low-income and middle-income country.

The effect of the Xpert HIV-1 Qual test on early infant diagnosis of HIV in Myanmar and Papua New Guinea: a pragmatic, cluster-randomised, stepped-wedge, open-label trial.

BACKGROUND: Despite proven benefits for child health, coverage of early infant diagnosis of HIV remains suboptimal in many settings. We aimed to assess the effect of a point-of-care early infant diagnosis test on time-to-results communication for infants vertically exposed to HIV. METHODS: This pragmatic, cluster-randomised, stepped-wedge, open-label trial assessed the effect of the Xpert HIV-1 Qual early infant diagnosis test (Cepheid) on time-to-results communication, compared with standard care laboratory-based testing of dried blood spots using PCR. Hospitals were the unit of randomisation for one-way crossover from control to intervention phase. Each site had between 1 month and 10 months of control phase before transitioning to the intervention, with a total of 33 hospital-months in the control phase and 45 hospital-months in the intervention phase. We enrolled infants vertically exposed to HIV at six public hospitals: four in Myanmar and two in Papua New Guinea. Infants had to have mothers with confirmed HIV infection, be younger than 28 days, and required HIV testing to be eligible for enrolment. Health-care facilities providing prevention of vertical transmission services were eligible for participation. The primary outcome was communication of early infant diagnosis results to the infant's caregiver by 3 months of age, assessed by intention to treat. This completed trial was registered with the Australian and New Zealand Clinical Trials Registry, 12616000734460. FINDINGS: In Myanmar, recruitment took place between Oct 1, 2016, and June 30, 2018; in Papua New Guinea, recruitment was between Dec 1, 2016, and Aug 31, 2018. A total of 393 caregiver-infant pairs were enrolled in the study across both countries. Independent of study time, the Xpert test reduced time to early infant diagnosis results communication by 60%, compared with the standard of care (adjusted time ratio 0·40, 95% CI 0·29-0·53, p<0·0001). In the control phase, two (2%) of 102 study participants received an early infant diagnosis test result by 3 months of age compared with 214 (74%) of 291 in the intervention phase. No safety and adverse events were reported related to the diagnostic testing intervention. INTERPRETATION: This study reinforces the importance of scaling up point-of-care early infant diagnosis testing in resource-constrained and low HIV-prevalence settings, typical of the UNICEF East Asia and Pacific region. FUNDING: National Health and Medical Research Council of Australia.

Point-of-care HPV DNA testing of self-collected specimens and same-day thermal ablation for the early detection and treatment of cervical pre-cancer in women in Papua New Guinea: a prospective, single-arm intervention trial (HPV-STAT).

BACKGROUND: WHO recommends human papillomavirus (HPV) testing and same-day treatment for cervical screening in low-income and middle-income countries (LMICs); however, few published data exist on the validity of the strategy. We aimed to evaluate the clinical performance, treatment completion rates, adverse events profile, and acceptability of a fully integrated strategy, comprising point-of-care HPV DNA testing of self-collected specimens and same-day thermal ablation, for screening of cervical cancer in women in Papua New Guinea. METHODS: HPV-STAT was a large-scale, prospective, single-arm intervention trial conducted at two clinical sites in Papua New Guinea. Cervical screening clinics with an on-site consultant gynaecologist were selected in consultation with national and provincial health authorities, church health services, and local stakeholders. Eligible participants were women aged 30-59 years attending cervical screening services at the two clinics, who were willing to comply with study procedures and able to provide written informed consent. Women self-collected vaginal specimens for point-of-care GeneXpert testing (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, CA, USA) for oncogenic HPV types. Women testing positive for HPV underwent pelvic examination followed by same-day thermal ablation or referral for gynaecology review. All HPV-positive women and a 15% random sample of HPV-negative women provided a clinician-collected cervical specimen for liquid-based cytology. The primary outcome was clinical performance (ie, sensitivity, specificity, positive predictive value [PPV], and negative predictive value [NPV]) of the strategy for the detection of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) or worse. This trial is registered with ISRCTN, ISRCTN13476702. FINDINGS: Between June 5, 2018, and Jan 6, 2020, we recruited 4285 women, 3638 (84·9%) of whom tested negative for HPV and 647 (15·1%) tested positive for one or more oncogenic HPV type. Sensitivity of the algorithm to detect HSIL or worse was 85·4% (95% CI 81·0-89·6), with specificity 89·6% (88·6-90·6), PPV 35·2% (31·6-39·0), and NPV 98·9% (98·6-99·2). Among HPV-positive women, 602 (93·0%) received same-day thermal ablation and 42 (6·5%) were referred for gynaecology review, 37 (88·1%) of whom attended. Acceptability was high among both HPV-positive and HPV-negative women. Among the 329 HPV-positive women who attended a 3-month follow-up visit, 51 (15·5%) reported mild adverse symptoms that resolved in all cases by the follow-up visit. There were no serious adverse events. INTERPRETATION: We conducted the first real-world evaluation of a fully integrated point-of-care HPV self-collect, test, and treat strategy for same-day cervical screening in a LMIC and found it to be effective, acceptable, and safe when implemented at scale in primary health-care facilities in Papua New Guinea. Our findings support the introduction and scale-up of HPV screening and treatment for the control and elimination of cervical cancer in LMICs, as recommended by WHO. FUNDING: Australian National Health and Medical Research Council.

Performance of clinical screening algorithms comprising point-of-care HPV-DNA testing using self-collected vaginal specimens, and visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid, for the detection of underlying high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesions in Papua New Guinea.

The performance of different clinical screening algorithms comprising point-of-care HPV-DNA testing using self-collected vaginal ('V') specimens, and visual inspection of the cervix with acetic acid (VIA) was evaluated in Papua New Guinea. Women aged 30-59 years provided V specimens that were tested at point-of-care using the Xpert HPV Test (Cepheid, Sunnyvale, CA). A clinician-collected cervical ('C') specimen was then collected for point-of-care Xpert testing, and liquid-based cytology (LBC). Following this, VIA examination was conducted, blind to HPV test results, and ablative cervical cryotherapy provided if indicated. Detection of high-grade squamous intraepithelial lesion (HSIL) by LBC was the reference standard used to evaluate clinical screening algorithms. Of 1005 women, 36 had HSIL+. Xpert HPV Test performance using V specimens (sensitivity 91.7%, specificity 87.0%, PPV 34.0%, NPV 99.3%) was superior to VIA examination alone (51.5%, 81.4%, 17.5%, 95.6% respectively) in predicting underlying HSIL+. A screening algorithm comprising V specimen HPV testing followed by VIA examination had low sensitivity (45.5%) but comparable specificity, PPV and NPV to HPV testing alone (96.3%, 45.5%, 96.3% respectively). A 'test-and-treat' screening algorithm based on point-of-care HPV testing of V specimens had superior performance compared with either VIA examination alone, or a combined screening algorithm comprising HPV testing plus VIA.

Performance of syndromic management for the detection and treatment of genital Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Trichomonas vaginalis among women attending antenatal, well woman and sexual health clinics in Papua New Guinea: a cross-sectional study.

OBJECTIVE: Papua New Guinea (PNG) has among the highest estimated prevalences of genital Chlamydia trachomatis (CT), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) and Trichomonas vaginalis (TV) of any country in the Asia-Pacific region. Diagnosis and treatment of these infections have relied on the WHO-endorsed syndromic management strategy that uses clinical presentation without laboratory confirmation to make treatment decisions. We evaluated the performance of this strategy in clinical settings in PNG. DESIGN: Women attending antenatal (ANC), well woman (WWC) and sexual health (SHC) clinics in four provinces were invited to participate, completed a face-to-face interview and clinical examination, and provided genital specimens for laboratory testing. We estimated the performance characteristics of syndromic diagnoses against combined laboratory diagnoses. RESULTS: 1764 women were enrolled (ANC=765; WWC=614; SHC=385). The prevalences of CT, NG and TV were highest among women attending ANC and SHC. Among antenatal women, syndromic diagnosis of sexually transmitted infection had low sensitivity (9%-21%) and positive predictive value (PPV) (7%-37%), but high specificity (76%-89%) and moderate negative predictive value (NPV) (55%-86%) for the combined endpoint of laboratory-confirmed CT, NG or TV. Among women attending WWC and SHC, 'vaginal discharge syndrome' had moderate to high sensitivity (72%-78%) and NPV (62%-94%), but low specificity (26%-33%) and PPV (8%-38%). 'Lower abdominal pain syndrome' had low sensitivity (26%-41%) and PPV (8%-23%) but moderate specificity (66%-68%) and high NPV (74%-93%) among women attending WWC, and moderate-high sensitivity (67%-79%) and NPV (62%-86%) but low specificity (26%-28%) and PPV (14%-33%) among SHC attendees. CONCLUSION: The performance of syndromic management for the detection and treatment of genital chlamydia, gonorrhoea and trichomonas was poor among women in different clinical settings in PNG. New diagnostic strategies are needed to control these infections and to prevent their adverse health outcomes in PNG and other high-burden countries.

Prevalence and risk factors of Chlamydia trachomatis, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Trichomonas vaginalis and other sexually transmissible infections among women attending antenatal clinics in three provinces in Papua New Guinea: a cross-sectional survey.

Background Papua New Guinea (PNG) is estimated to have among the highest prevalences of HIV and sexually transmissible infections (STIs) of any Asia-Pacific country, and one of the highest burdens of maternal syphilis globally. The prevalence of curable STIs, such as Chlamydia trachomatis (CT), Neisseria gonorrhoeae (NG) and Trichomonas vaginalis (TV), among pregnant women in PNG is relatively unknown. METHODS: A cross-sectional bio-behavioural survey to investigate the epidemiology of CT, NG, TV and other STIs among pregnant women in three provinces of PNG was undertaken. Women aged 18-35 years attending their first antenatal clinic visit were invited to participate. Participants completed a short interview and provided self-collected vaginal specimens for CT, NG and TV laboratory-based nucleic acid amplification tests and a venepuncture specimen for laboratory testing for syphilis and Herpes simplex virus type-2 (HSV-2) serology. Routine antenatal assessment was conducted according to national guidelines, including HIV counselling and testing and point-of-care syphilis screening. RESULTS: A total of 765 women were enrolled. Overall, 43% (95% confidence interval (CI): 39.2-46.4) had one or more of CT, NG or TV infection. CT was the most prevalent STI (22.9%, 175/765; 95% CI: 19.9-25.9), followed by TV (22.4%, 171/765; 95% CI: 19.4-25.4), and NG (14.2%, 109/765; 95% CI: 11.7-16.7). The prevalence of active syphilis was 2.2% (17/765; 95% CI: 1.2-3.3), HSV-2 was 28.0% (214/765; 95% CI: 24.8-31.2) and HIV, 0.8% (6/765; 95% CI: 0.2-1.4). Prevalences were highest among primigravid women, women aged <25 years, and among those in Central Province. CONCLUSION: High prevalences of curable genital STIs were observed among women attending routine antenatal clinic services in PNG. These infections have been associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes and could be important contributors to poor maternal and neonatal health in this setting.