Do bone geometric properties of the proximal femoral diaphysis reflect loading history, muscle properties, or body dimensions?

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to investigate activity-induced effects from bone geometric properties of the proximal femur in athletic vs nonathletic healthy females by statistically controlling for variation in body size, lower limb isometric, and dynamic muscle strength, and cross-sectional area of Musculus gluteus maximus. METHODS: The material consists of hip and proximal thigh magnetic resonance images of Finnish female athletes (N = 91) engaged in either high jump, triple jump, soccer, squash, powerlifting, endurance running or swimming, and a group of physically active nonathletic women (N = 20). Cross-sectional bone geometric properties were calculated for the lesser trochanter, sub-trochanter, and mid-shaft of the femur regions. Bone geometric properties were analyzed using a general linear model that included body size, muscle size, and muscle strength as covariates. RESULTS: Body size and isometric muscle strength were positively associated with bone geometric properties at all three cross-sectional levels of the femur, while muscle size was positively associated with bone properties only at the femur mid-shaft. When athletes were compared to nonathletic females, triple jump, soccer, and squash resulted in greater values in all studied cross-sections; high jump and endurance running resulted in greater values at the femoral mid-shaft cross-section; and swimming resulted in lower values at sub-trochanter and femur mid-shaft cross-sections. CONCLUSIONS: Activity effects from ground impact loading were associated with higher bone geometric values, especially at the femur mid-shaft, but also at lesser and sub-trochanter cross-sections. Bone geometric properties along the femur can be used to assess the mechanical stimuli experienced, where ground impact loading seems to be more important than muscle loading.

The relationship between loading history and proximal femoral diaphysis cross-sectional geometry.

OBJECTIVES: We investigated the relationship between loading history and bone biomechanical properties used in physical activity reconstructions. These bone properties included bone bending and torsional strength (J), cortical area (CA), the direction of the major axis (theta angle), and element shape ratios determined from cross sections of standardized bone length. In addition, we explored the applicability of anatomically determined cross sections. METHODS: Our material consisted of hip and proximal thigh magnetic resonance images of Finnish female athletes (N = 91) engaged in high-jump, triple-jump, endurance running, swimming, power-lifting, soccer and squash; along with a group of active non-athlete individuals (N = 20). We used regression analysis for size-adjustment, and the extracted residuals were then used to compare differences in the bone properties between groups. RESULTS: We found that triple-jumpers, soccer players, and squash players had the greatest values in CA and J, swimmers and non-athletes had the smallest, whereas high-jumpers, power-lifters, and endurance runners exhibited interim values. No between-the-group differences in element shape ratios or theta angles were found. We found that influences of activity were similar regardless of whether standardized length or anatomically determined cross sections were used. CONCLUSIONS: Extreme (triple-jump) and directionally inconsistent loading (soccer and squash) necessitate a more robust skeleton compared to directionally consistent loading (high-jump, power-lifting, and endurance running) or non-impact loading (swimming and non-athletes). However, not all of these relationships were statistically significant. Thus, information gained about physical activity using bone properties is informative but limited. Accounting for the limitations, the method is applicable on fragmented skeletal material as anatomically determined cross sections can be used.

Effect of fall direction on the lower hip fracture risk in athletes with different loading histories: A finite element modeling study in multiple sideways fall configurations.

Physical loading makes bones stronger through structural adaptation. Finding effective modes of exercise to improve proximal femur strength has the potential to decrease hip fracture risk. Previous proximal femur finite element (FE) modeling studies have indicated that the loading history comprising impact exercises is associated with substantially higher fracture load. However, those results were limited only to one specified fall direction. It remains thus unclear whether exercise-induced higher fracture load depends on the fall direction. To address this, using magnetic resonance images of proximal femora from 91 female athletes (mean age 24.7 years with >8 years competitive career) and their 20 non-athletic but physically active controls (mean age 23.7 years), proximal femur FE models were created in 12 different sideways fall configurations. The athletes were divided into five groups by typical loading patterns of their sports: high-impact (H-I: 9 triple- and 10 high-jumpers), odd-impact (O-I: 9 soccer and 10 squash players), high-magnitude (H-M: 17 powerlifters), repetitive-impact (R-I: 18 endurance runners), and repetitive non-impact (R-NI: 18 swimmers). Compared to the controls, the FE models showed that the H-I and R-I groups had significantly (p < 0.05) higher fracture loads, 11-17% and 22-28% respectively, in all fall directions while the O-I group had significantly 10-11% higher fracture loads in four fall directions. The H-M and R-NI groups did not show significant benefit in any direction. Also, the analyses of the minimum fall strength (MFS) among these multiple fall configurations confirmed significantly 15%, 11%, and 14% higher MFSs in these impact groups, respectively, compared to the controls. These results suggest that the lower hip fracture risk indicated by higher fracture loads in athletes engaged in high impact or repetitive impact sports is independent of fall direction whereas the lower fracture risk attributed to odd-impact exercise is more modest and specific to the fall direction. Moreover, in concordance with the literature, the present study also confirmed that the fracture risk increases if the impact is imposed on the more posterolateral aspect of the hip. The present results highlight the importance of engaging in the impact exercises to prevent hip fractures and call for retrospective studies to investigate whether specific impact exercise history in adolescence and young adulthood is also associated with lower incidence of hip fractures in later life.

Biomechanical performance of cranial implants with different thicknesses and material properties: A finite element study.

This study investigated the effect of implant thickness and material on deformation and stress distribution within different components of cranial implant assemblies. Using the finite element method, two cranial implants, differing in size and shape, and thicknesses (1, 2, 3 and 4 mm, respectively), were simulated under three loading scenarios. The implant assembly model included the detailed geometries of the mini-plates and micro-screws and was simulated using a sub-modeling approach. Statistical assessments based on the Design of Experiment methodology and on multiple regression analysis revealed that peak stresses in the components are influenced primarily by implant thickness, while the effect of implant material is secondary. On the contrary, the implant deflection is influenced predominantly by implant material followed by implant thickness. The highest values of deformation under a 50 N load were observed in the thinnest (1 mm) Polymethyl Methacrylate implant (Small defect: 0.296 mm; Large defect: 0.390 mm). The thinnest Polymethyl Methacrylate and Polyether Ether Ketone implants also generated stresses in the implants that can potentially breach the materials' yield limit. In terms of stress distribution, the change of implant thickness had a more significant impact on the implant performance than the change of Young's modulus of the implant material. The results indicated that the stresses are concentrated in the locations of fixation; therefore, the detailed models of mini-plates and micro-screws implemented in the finite element simulation provided a better insight into the mechanical performance of the implant-skull system.

Impact loading history modulates hip fracture load and location: A finite element simulation study of the proximal femur in female athletes.

Sideways falls impose high stress on the thin superolateral cortical bone of the femoral neck, the region regarded as a fracture-prone region of the hip. Exercise training is a natural mode of mechanical loading to make bone more robust. Exercise-induced adaptation of cortical bone along the femoral neck has been previously demonstrated. However, it is unknown whether this adaption modulates hip fracture behavior. The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of specific exercise loading history on fall-induced hip fracture behavior by estimating fracture load and location with proximal femur finite element (FE) models created from magnetic resonance images (MRI) of 111 women with distinct exercise histories: 91 athletes (aged 24.7 ±â€¯6.1 years, >8 years competitive career) and 20 women as controls (aged 23.7 ±â€¯3.8 years). The athletes were divided into five groups based on typical loading patterns of their sports: high-impact (H-I: 9 triple-jumpers and 10 high jumpers), odd-impact (O-I: 9 soccer and 10 squash players), high-magnitude (H-M: 17 power-lifters), repetitive-impact (R-I: 18 endurance runners), and repetitive non-impact (R-NI: 18 swimmers). Compared to the controls, the H-I, O-I, and R-I groups had significantly higher (11-26%, p < 0.05) fracture loads. Also, the fracture location in the H-I and O-I groups was significantly more proximal (7-10%) compared to the controls. These results suggest that an exercise loading history of high impacts, impacts from unusual directions, or repetitive impacts increases the fracture load and may lower the risk of fall-induced hip fracture.

Ricci-flow based conformal mapping of the proximal femur to identify exercise loading effects.

The causal relationship between habitual loading and adaptive response in bone morphology is commonly explored by analysing the spatial distribution of mechanically relevant features. In this study, 3D distribution of features in the proximal femur of 91 female athletes (5 exercise loading groups representing habitual loading) is contrasted with 20 controls. A femur specific Ricci-flow based conformal mapping procedure was developed for establishing correspondence among the periosteal surfaces. The procedure leverages the invariance of the conformal mapping method to isometric shape differences to align surfaces in the 2D parametric domain, to produce dense correspondences across an isotopological set of surfaces. This is implemented through a multi-parametrisation approach to detect surface features and to overcome the issue of inconsistency in the anatomical extent present in the data. Subsequently, the group-wise distribution of two mechanically relevant features was studied - cortical thickness and surface principal strains (simulation results of a sideways fall). Statistical inferences over the surfaces were made by contrasting the athlete groups with the controls through statistical parametric mapping. With the aid of group-wise and composite-group maps, proximal femur regions affected by specific loading groups were identified with a high degree of spatial localisation.

Finite element analysis of 6 large PMMA skull reconstructions: A multi-criteria evaluation approach.

In this study 6 pre-operative designs for PMMA based reconstructions of cranial defects were evaluated for their mechanical robustness using finite element modeling. Clinical experience and engineering principles were employed to create multiple plan options, which were subsequently computationally analyzed for mechanically relevant parameters under 50N loads: stress, strain and deformation in various components of the assembly. The factors assessed were: defect size, location and shape. The major variable in the cranioplasty assembly design was the arrangement of the fixation plates. An additional study variable introduced was the location of the 50N load within the implant area. It was found that in smaller defects, it was simpler to design a symmetric distribution of plates and under limited variability in load location it was possible to design an optimal for expected loads. However, for very large defects with complex shapes, the variability in the load locations introduces complications to the intuitive design of the optimal assembly. The study shows that it can be beneficial to incorporate multi design computational analyses to decide upon the most optimal plan for a clinical case.

Exercise loading history and femoral neck strength in a sideways fall: A three-dimensional finite element modeling study.

Over 90% of hip fractures are caused by falls. Due to a fall-induced impact on the greater trochanter, the posterior part of the thin superolateral cortex of the femoral neck is known to experience the highest stress, making it a fracture-prone region. Cortical geometry of the proximal femur, in turn, reflects a mechanically appropriate form with respect to habitual exercise loading. In this finite element (FE) modeling study, we investigated whether specific exercise loading history is associated with femoral neck structural strength and estimated fall-induced stresses along the femoral neck. One hundred and eleven three-dimensional (3D) proximal femur FE models for a sideways falling situation were constructed from magnetic resonance (MR) images of 91 female athletes (aged 24.7±6.1years, >8years competitive career) and 20 non-competitive habitually active women (aged 23.7±3.8years) that served as a control group. The athletes were divided into five distinct groups based on the typical loading pattern of their sports: high-impact (H-I: triple-jumpers and high-jumpers), odd-impact (O-I: soccer and squash players), high-magnitude (H-M: power-lifters), repetitive-impact (R-I: endurance runners), and repetitive non-impact (R-NI: swimmers). The von Mises stresses obtained from the FE models were used to estimate mean fall-induced stresses in eight anatomical octants of the cortical bone cross-sections at the proximal, middle, and distal sites along the femoral neck axis. Significantly (p<0.05) lower stresses compared to the control group were observed: the H-I group - in the superoposterior (10%) and posterior (19%) octants at the middle site, and in the superoposterior (13%) and posterior (22%) octants at the distal site; the O-I group - in the superior (16%), superoposterior (16%), and posterior (12%) octants at the middle site, and in the superoposterior (14%) octant at the distal site; the H-M group - in the superior (13%) and superoposterior (15%) octants at the middle site, and a trend (p=0.07, 9%) in the superoposterior octant at the distal site; the R-I group - in the superior (14%), superoposterior (23%) and posterior (22%) octants at the middle site, and in the superoposterior (19%) and posterior (20%) octants at the distal site. The R-NI group did not differ significantly from the control group. These results suggest that exercise loading history comprising various impacts in particular is associated with a stronger femoral neck in a falling situation and may have potential to reduce hip fragility.

Structural and mechanical implications of PMMA implant shape and interface geometry in cranioplasty--A finite element study.

This computational study investigates the effect of shape (defect contour curvature) and bone-implant interface (osteotomy angle) on the stress distribution within PMMA skull implants. Using finite element methodology, 15 configurations--combinations of simplified synthetic geometric shapes (circular, square, triangular, irregular) and interface angulations--were simulated under 50N static loads. Furthermore, the implant fixation devices were modelled and analysed in detail. Negative osteotomy configurations demonstrated the largest stresses in the implant (275 MPa), fixation devices (1258 MPa) and bone strains (0.04). The circular implant with zero and positive osteotomy performed well with maximum observed magnitudes of--implant stress (1.2 MPa and 1.2 MPa), fixation device stress (11.2 MPa and 2.2 MPa), bone strain (0.218e-3 and 0.750e-4). The results suggest that the preparation of defect sites is a critical procedure. Of the greatest importance is the angle at which the edges of the defect are sawed. If under an external load, the implant has no support from the interface and the stresses are transferred to the fixation devices. This can endanger their material integrity and lead to unphysiological strains in the adjacent bone, potentially compromising the bone morphology required for anchoring. These factors can ultimately weaken the stability of the entire implant assembly.

Microcomputed tomography-based assessment of retrieved dental implants.

PURPOSE: The aim of this study was to demonstrate the potential of microcomputed tomography (micro-CT) technology in the assessment of retrieved dental implants. Cases are presented to illustrate the value of micro-CT imaging techniques in determining possible mechanical causes for dental implant failures. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Eight retrieved dental implants were randomly selected from a pool and imaged using a micro-CT device. Source voltages (80 to 100 kV) and source-to-detector distances (65 to 70 mm) were based on signal quality requirements with an additional criterion of achieving the highest resolution with the sample entirely in the field of view in the projection plane. One additional sample was chosen for histology and tomographic imaging so that the information contained therein could be compared. RESULTS: The micro-CT images displayed high contrast between the implant, bone, and background, with negligible metal artifacts. The micro-CT technology used in this study delivered excellent images of the retrieved implants. As a result of the quality and resolution (pixel size: 5.52 to 6.15 µm) of the images, surface morphology as well as internal structures of the retrieved implants could be observed in great detail. The majority of the retrieved implants had increased wear, dents, pits, regular shallow scratches, and deep scratches in the implant-to-abutment engagement area. Furthermore, plastic deformations, microcracks, and brittle implant fractures were observed in two implants. CONCLUSION: The mechanical competence of dental implant components plays a major role in the success of implant treatment. When failures do occur, a nondestructive three-dimensional assessment of such failed implants and their components is helpful in understanding the underlying factors. Micro-CT was found to be a useful tool for the morphologic assessment of retrieved dental implants.

µCT based assessment of mechanical deformation of designed PTMC scaffolds.

BACKGROUND: Advances in rapid-prototyping and 3D printing technologies have enhanced the possibilities in preparing designed architectures for tissue engineering applications. A major advantage in custom designing is the ability to create structures with desired mechanical properties. While the behaviour of a designed scaffold can be simulated using bulk material properties, it is important to verify the behaviour of a printed scaffold at the microstructure level. OBJECTIVE: In this study we present an effective method in validating the mechanical behaviour of designed scaffolds using a µCT with an in-situ mechanical deformation device. METHODS: The scaffolds were prepared from biodegradable poly(trimethylene carbonate) (PTMC) by stereolithography and images obtained using a high-resolution µCT with 12.25µm isometric voxels. The data was processed (filtering, segmentation) and analysed (surface generation, registration) to extract relevant deformation features. RESULTS: The computed local deformation fields, calculated at sub-pore resolutions, displayed expected linear behaviour within the scaffold along the compressions axis. On planes perpendicular to this axis, the deformations varied by 150- 200µm. CONCLUSIONS: µCT based imaging with in-situ deformation provides a vital tool in validating the design parameters of printed scaffolds. Deformation fields obtained from micro-tomographic image volumes can serve to corroborate the simulated ideal design with the realized product.

A multi-tissue segmentation of the human head for detailed computational models.

This paper describes the creation of an anatomically detailed high resolution model of the human head based on the Visible Human Female data from the National Library of Medicine archives. Automatic and semi-automatic segmentation algorithms were applied over the 3 image volumes ­ CT, MRI and anatomical cryo-sections of the cadaver ­ to label a total of 23 tissues. The results were combined to create a labeled volume of the head with voxel dimensions of 0.33×0.33×0.33 mm. The individual label matrices and their corresponding surface meshes are made available to be used freely. The detailed blood vessel network and ocular tissues will be of interest in computational modelling and simulation studies.

Finite element analysis of customized reconstruction plates for mandibular continuity defect therapy.

Large mandibular continuity defects pose a significant challenge in oral maxillofacial surgery. One solution to this problem is to use computer-guided surgical planning and additive manufacturing technology to produce patient-specific reconstruction plates. However, when designing customized plates, it is important to assess potential biomechanical responses that may vary substantially depending on the size and geometry of the defect. The aim of this study was to assess the design of two customized plates using finite element method (FEM). These plates were designed for the reconstruction of the lower left mandibles of two ameloblastoma cases (patient 1/plate 1 and patient 2/plate 2) with large bone resections differing in both geometry and size. Simulations revealed maximum von Mises stresses of 63 MPa and 108 MPa in plates 1 and 2, and 65 MPa and 190 MPa in the fixation screws of patients 1 and 2. The equivalent strain induced in the bone at the screw-bone interface reached maximum values of 2739 micro-strain for patient 1 and 19,575 micro-strain for patient 2. The results demonstrate the influence of design on the stresses induced in the plate and screw bodies. Of particular note, however, are the differences in the induced strains. Unphysiologically high strains in bone adjacent to screws can cause micro-damage leading to bone resorption. This can adversely affect the anchoring capabilities of the screws. Thus, while custom plates offer optimal anatomical fit, attention should be paid to the expected physiological forces on the plates and the induced stresses and strains in the plate-screw-bone assembly.

Femoral neck cross-sectional geometry and exercise loading.

The aim of this study was to examine the association between different types of exercise loading and femoral neck cross-sectional geometry. Our data comprised proximal femur magnetic resonance (MR) images obtained from 91 female athletes and their 20 age-matched controls. The athletes were categorized according to typical training activity - high impact (high and triple jumping), odd impact (racket and soccer playing), high magnitude (power lifting), repetitive low impact (endurance running) and repetitive non-impact (swimming). Segmented MR images at two locations, narrowest cross-section of the femoral neck (narrowFN) and the cross-section at insertion of articular capsule (distalFN), were investigated to detect between group differences in shape, curvature and buckling ratio derived using image and signal analysis tools. The narrowFN results indicated that the high-impact group had weaker antero-superior (33% larger buckling ratio than controls) but stronger inferior weight-bearing region (32% smaller than controls), while the odd-impact group had stronger superior, posterior and anterior region (21% smaller buckling ratio than controls). The distalFN results indicated that the high-impact group had stronger inferior region (37% smaller buckling ratio), but the odd-impact group had stronger superior region (22% smaller buckling ratio) than the controls. Overall, the results point towards odd-impact exercise loading, with inherently varying directions of impact, associated with more robust cross-sectional geometry along the femoral neck. In conclusion, our one-dimensional polar treatment for geometrical traits and intuitive presentation of differences in trends between exercise groups and controls provides a basis for analysis with high angular accuracy.