Treatment of Cardiac Fibrosis with Extracellular Vesicles: What Is Missing for Clinical Translation?

Heart failure is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality and currently affects more than 60 million people worldwide. A key feature in the pathogenesis of almost all forms of heart failure is cardiac fibrosis, which is characterized by excessive accumulation of extracellular matrix components in the heart. Although cardiac fibrosis is beneficial in the short term after acute myocardial injury to preserve the structural and functional integrity of the heart, persistent cardiac fibrosis contributes to pathological cardiac remodeling, leading to mechanical and electrical dysfunction of the heart. Despite its high prevalence, standard therapies specifically targeting cardiac fibrosis are not yet available. Cell-based approaches have been extensively studied as potential treatments for cardiac fibrosis, but several challenges have been identified during clinical translation. The observation that extracellular vesicles (EVs) derived from stem and progenitor cells exhibit some of the therapeutic effects of the parent cells has paved the way to overcome limitations associated with cell therapy. However, to make EV-based products a reality, standardized methods for EV production, isolation, characterization, and storage must be established, along with concrete evidence of their safety and efficacy in clinical trials. This article discusses EVs as novel therapeutics for cardiac fibrosis from a translational perspective.

Mechanical Fingerprint of Senescence in Endothelial Cells.

Endothelial senescence entails alterations of the healthy cell phenotype, which accumulate over time and contribute to cardiovascular disease. Mechanical aspects regulating cell adhesion, force generation, and the response to flow contribute to the senescence-associated drift; however, they remain largely unexplored. Here, we exploit force microscopy to resolve variations of the cell anchoring to the substrate and the tractions generated upon aging in the nanonewton (nN) range. Senescent endothelial cells display a multifold increase in the levels of basal adhesion and force generation supported by mature and strong focal adhesions. The enhanced mechanical interaction with the substrate yields static endothelial monolayers that polarize in response to flow but fail the process of coordinated cell shape remodeling and reorientation. The emerging picture indicates that senescence reinforces the local cell interaction with the substrate and may therefore prevent endothelial denudation; however, it compromises the ability to functionally adapt to the local hemodynamic conditions.

Surgical Implantation Techniques of Modern Continuous Flow Ventricular Assist Devices.

Implantable left ventricular assist devices (durable LVADs) have dramatically improved mortality and morbidity in patients with advanced heart failure. Originally designed as a bridge or candidacy to heart transplantation, the indications extend toward permanent support and palliation. Modern durable continuous flow LVADs are small, commercially available, and allow for different surgical approaches to a wide range of patients with various cardiac pathologies. We will review different surgical implantation techniques of modern continuous flow LVADs, as well as specific aspects of preoperative patient evaluation and planning.

Techniques for Robotic-Assisted Surgical Myocardial Revascularization.

The two current strategies for robotic-assisted, surgical myocardial revascularization are minimally invasive direct coronary artery bypass (MIDCAB) and totally endoscopic coronary artery bypass grafting (TECAB). We discuss the rationale underlying the benefits of robotic assistance in surgical myocardial revascularization, and detail the technical steps to safely and effectively perform these two procedures.

Hopes and Hurdles of Employing Mesenchymal Stromal Cells in the Treatment of Cardiac Fibrosis.

Excessive cardiac fibrosis plays a crucial role in almost all types of heart disease. Generally, cardiac fibrosis is a scarring process triggered in response to stress, injury, or aging and is characterized by the accumulation of activated myofibroblasts that deposit high levels of extracellular matrix proteins in the myocardium. While it is beneficial for cardiac repair in the short term, it can also result in pathological remodeling, tissue stiffening, and cardiac dysfunction, contributing to the progression of heart failure, arrhythmia, and sudden cardiac death. Despite its high prevalence, there is a lack of effective and safe therapies that specifically target myofibroblasts to inhibit or even reverse pathological cardiac fibrosis. In the past few decades, cell therapy has been under continuous evaluation as a potential treatment strategy, and several studies have shown that transplantation of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) can reduce cardiac fibrosis and improve heart function. Mechanistically, it is believed that the heart benefits from MSC therapy by stimulating innate anti-fibrotic and regenerative reactions. The mechanisms of action include paracrine signaling and cell-to-cell interactions. In this review, we provide an overview of the anti-fibrotic properties of MSCs and approaches to enhance them and discuss future directions of MSCs for the treatment of cardiac fibrosis.

Proton Pump Inhibitors Accelerate Endothelial Senescence.

RATIONALE: Proton pump inhibitors (PPIs) are popular drugs for gastroesophageal reflux, which are now available for long-term use without medical supervision. Recent reports suggest that PPI use is associated with cardiovascular, renal, and neurological morbidity. OBJECTIVE: To study the long-term effect of PPIs on endothelial dysfunction and senescence and investigate the mechanism involved in PPI-induced vascular dysfunction. METHODS AND RESULTS: Chronic exposure to PPIs impaired endothelial function and accelerated human endothelial senescence by reducing telomere length. CONCLUSIONS: Our data may provide a unifying mechanism for the association of PPI use with increased risk of cardiovascular, renal, and neurological morbidity and mortality.

Graft failure and recurrence of symptoms after coronary artery bypass grafting.

OBJECTIVES: Saphenous vein grafts (SVGs) most often used in coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) are subject to graft disease and have poor long-term patency, however the clinical implication of this is not completely known. We aim to assess the influence of graft failure on the postoperative recurrence of coronary artery disease (CAD) symptoms in relation to the contribution from progression of atherosclerosis in the native coronary vessels. DESIGN: Within the SWEDEHEART registry we identified 46,663 CABG cases between 2001 and 2015 with patient age 40-80 years where single internal mammary artery (IMA) anastomosis (IMA), single IMA with one (1SVG) or multiple SVG anastomoses (2+ SVG) had been performed. Clinical characteristics as well as mortality and postoperative incidence of coronary angiography were recorded and multivariable adjusted hazard ratios were calculated. Indications for the angiographies and occurrence of graft failure were also registered. RESULTS: The adjusted hazard ratio for death was similar for the three groups. The adjusted hazard ratio for being submitted to angiography as compared to 2+ SVG was (95% CI) 1.24 (1.06-1.46) for IMA and 1.21 (1.15-1.28) for 1SVG. Failed grafts were found at the first postoperative angiography with preceding CAD symptoms in 21.4% of patients in the IMA group, 41.6% in the 1SVG group and 61.1% in the 2+ SVG group. CONCLUSIONS: A substantial amount of angiographies occur in patients without any graft failure and a large part of postoperative recurrence of CAD symptoms and are likely attributed to IMA failure or progression of atherosclerosis in the native coronary arteries.

Regenerative Medicine/Cardiac Cell Therapy: Adult/Somatic Progenitor Cells.

Preclinical data suggested that somatic stem or progenitor cells derived induce and/or support endogenous repair mechanisms of the myocardium. Such cell populations were clearly shown to promote neovascularization in postischemic tissue, and some evidence also indicated transdifferentiation into cardiomyocytes. In the clinical setting, however, many attempts to regenerate damaged myocardium with a variety of autologous and allogeneic somatic progenitors have failed to generate the expected therapeutic efficacy. Currently, efforts are being made to select specific cellular subpopulations, modify somatic cells to augment their regenerative capacity, improve delivery methods, and develop markers selection of potentially responding patients. Cardiac surgical groups have pioneered and continue to advance the field of cellular therapies. While the initial excitement has subsided, the field has evolved into one of the pillars of surgical research and benefits from novel methods such as cellular reprogramming, genetic modification, and pluripotent stem cell technology. This review highlights developments and controversies in somatic cardiac cell therapy and provides a comprehensive overview of completed and ongoing clinical trials.

Targeting Lipoprotein(a): Can RNA Therapeutics Provide the Next Step in the Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease?

Numerous genetic and epidemiologic studies have demonstrated an association between elevated levels of lipoprotein(a) (Lp[a]) and cardiovascular disease. As a result, lowering Lp(a) levels is widely recognized as a promising strategy for reducing the risk of new-onset coronary heart disease, stroke, and heart failure. Lp(a) consists of a low-density lipoprotein-like particle with covalently linked apolipoprotein A (apo[a]) and apolipoprotein B-100, which explains its pro-thrombotic, pro-inflammatory, and pro-atherogenic properties. Lp(a) serum concentrations are genetically determined by the apo(a) isoform, with shorter isoforms having a higher rate of particle synthesis. To date, there are no approved pharmacological therapies that effectively reduce Lp(a) levels. Promising treatment approaches targeting apo(a) expression include RNA-based drugs such as pelacarsen, olpasiran, SLN360, and lepodisiran, which are currently in clinical trials. In this comprehensive review, we provide a detailed overview of RNA-based therapeutic approaches and discuss the recent advances and challenges of RNA therapeutics specifically designed to reduce Lp(a) levels and thus the risk of cardiovascular disease.

A clinical study to evaluate the safe and effective use of a new, single use stethoscope cover to enable reduction in pathogen transmission during auscultation.

Objectives: Stethoscopes carry a significant risk for pathogen transmission. Here, the safe use and performance of a new, non-sterile, single-use stethoscope cover (SC), that is impermeable for pathogens, was investigated by different healthcare professionals (HCPs) in the postoperative care setting of an intensive care unit (ICU). Methods: Fifty-four patients underwent routine auscultations with the use of the SC (Stethoglove®, Stethoglove GmbH, Hamburg, Germany). The participating HCPs (n = 34) rated each auscultation with the SC on a 5-point Likert scale. The mean ratings of acoustic quality and the SC handling were defined as primary and secondary performance endpoint. Results: 534 auscultations with the SC were performed (average 15.7/user) on the lungs (36.1%), the abdomen (33.2%), the heart (28.8%), or other body-sites (1.9%). No adverse device-effects occurred. The acoustic quality was rated at 4.2 ± 0.7 (mean) with a total of 86.1% of all auscultations being rated at least as 4/5, and with no rating as below 2. The SC handling was rated at 3.7 ± 0.8 (mean) with a total of 96.4% of all auscultations being rated at least 3/5. Conclusion: Using a real-world setting, this study demonstrates that the SC can be safely and effectively used as cover for stethoscopes during auscultation. The SC may therefore represent a useful and easy-to-implement tool for preventing stethoscope-mediated infections.Study Registration: EUDAMED no. CIV-21-09-037762.

Cardiomyocyte precursors generated by direct reprogramming and molecular beacon selection attenuate ventricular remodeling after experimental myocardial infarction.

BACKGROUND: Direct cardiac reprogramming is currently being investigated for the generation of cells with a true cardiomyocyte (CM) phenotype. Based on the original approach of cardiac transcription factor-induced reprogramming of fibroblasts into CM-like cells, various modifications of that strategy have been developed. However, they uniformly suffer from poor reprogramming efficacy and a lack of translational tools for target cell expansion and purification. Therefore, our group has developed a unique approach to generate proliferative cells with a pre-CM phenotype that can be expanded in vitro to yield substantial cell doses. METHODS: Cardiac fibroblasts were reprogrammed toward CM fate using lentiviral transduction of cardiac transcriptions factors (GATA4, MEF2C, TBX5, and MYOCD). The resulting cellular phenotype was analyzed by RNA sequencing and immunocytology. Live target cells were purified based on intracellular CM marker expression using molecular beacon technology and fluorescence-activated cell sorting. CM commitment was assessed using 5-azacytidine-based differentiation assays and the therapeutic effect was evaluated in a mouse model of acute myocardial infarction using echocardiography and histology. The cellular secretome was analyzed using mass spectrometry. RESULTS: We found that proliferative CM precursor-like cells were part of the phenotype spectrum arising during direct reprogramming of fibroblasts toward CMs. These induced CM precursors (iCMPs) expressed CPC- and CM-specific proteins and were selectable via hairpin-shaped oligonucleotide hybridization probes targeting Myh6/7-mRNA-expressing cells. After purification, iCMPs were capable of extensive expansion, with preserved phenotype when under ascorbic acid supplementation, and gave rise to CM-like cells with organized sarcomeres in differentiation assays. When transplanted into infarcted mouse hearts, iCMPs prevented CM loss, attenuated fibrotic scarring, and preserved ventricular function, which can in part be attributed to their substantial secretion of factors with documented beneficial effect on cardiac repair. CONCLUSIONS: Fibroblast reprogramming combined with molecular beacon-based cell selection yields an iCMP-like cell population with cardioprotective potential. Further studies are needed to elucidate mechanism-of-action and translational potential.

The Potential of Intertwining Gene Diagnostics and Surgery for Mitral Valve Prolapse.

Mitral valve prolapse (MVP) is common among heart valve disease patients, causing severe mitral regurgitation (MR). Although complications such as cardiac arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death are rare, the high prevalence of the condition leads to a significant number of such events. Through next-generation gene sequencing approaches, predisposing genetic components have been shown to play a crucial role in the development of MVP. After the discovery of the X-linked inheritance of filamin A, autosomal inherited genes were identified. In addition, the study of sporadic MVP identified several genes, including DZIP1, TNS1, LMCD1, GLIS1, PTPRJ, FLYWCH, and MMP2. The early screening of these genetic predispositions may help to determine the patient population at risk for severe complications of MVP and impact the timing of reconstructive surgery. Surgical mitral valve repair is an effective treatment option for MVP, resulting in excellent short- and long-term outcomes. Repair rates in excess of 95% and low complication rates have been consistently reported for minimally invasive mitral valve repair performed in high-volume centers. We therefore conceptualize a potential preventive surgical strategy for the treatment of MVP in patients with genetic predisposition, which is currently not considered in guideline recommendations. Further genetic studies on MVP pathology and large prospective clinical trials will be required to support such an approach.

Pushing the boundaries of innovation: the potential of ex vivo organ perfusion from an interdisciplinary point of view.

Ex vivo machine perfusion (EVMP) is an emerging technique for preserving explanted solid organs with primary application in allogeneic organ transplantation. EVMP has been established as an alternative to the standard of care static-cold preservation, allowing for prolonged preservation and real-time monitoring of organ quality while reducing/preventing ischemia-reperfusion injury. Moreover, it has paved the way to involve expanded criteria donors, e.g., after circulatory death, thus expanding the donor organ pool. Ongoing improvements in EVMP protocols, especially expanding the duration of preservation, paved the way for its broader application, in particular for reconditioning and modification of diseased organs and tumor and infection therapies and regenerative approaches. Moreover, implementing EVMP for in vivo-like preclinical studies improving disease modeling raises significant interest, while providing an ideal interface for bioengineering and genetic manipulation. These approaches can be applied not only in an allogeneic and xenogeneic transplant setting but also in an autologous setting, where patients can be on temporary organ support while the diseased organs are treated ex vivo, followed by reimplantation of the cured organ. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the differences and similarities in abdominal (kidney and liver) and thoracic (lung and heart) EVMP, focusing on the organ-specific components and preservation techniques, specifically on the composition of perfusion solutions and their supplements and perfusion temperatures and flow conditions. Novel treatment opportunities beyond organ transplantation and limitations of abdominal and thoracic EVMP are delineated to identify complementary interdisciplinary approaches for the application and development of this technique.

Endothelial damage inhibitor preserves the integrity of venous endothelial cells from patients undergoing coronary bypass surgery.

OBJECTIVES: Despite the success of coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery using autologous saphenous vein grafts (SVGs), nearly 50% of patients experience vein graft disease within 10 years of surgery. One contributing factor to early vein graft disease is endothelial damage during short-term storage of SVGs in inappropriate solutions. Our aim was to evaluate the effects of a novel endothelial damage inhibitor (EDI) on SVGs from patients undergoing elective CABG surgery and on venous endothelial cells (VECs) derived from these SVGs. METHODS: SVGs from 11 patients participating in an ongoing clinical registry (NCT02922088) were included in this study, and incubated with both full electrolyte solution (FES) or EDI for 1 h and then examined histologically. In 8 of 11 patients, VECs were isolated from untreated grafts, incubated with both FES and EDI for 2 h under hypothermic stress conditions and then analysed for activation of an inflammatory phenotype, cell damage and cytotoxicity, as well as endothelial integrity and barrier function. RESULTS: The EDI was superior to FES in protecting the endothelium in SVGs (74 ± 8% versus 56 ± 8%, P < 0.001). Besides confirming that the EDI prevents apoptosis in SVG-derived VECs, we also showed that the EDI temporarily reduces adherens junctions in VECs while protecting focal adhesions compared to FES. CONCLUSIONS: The EDI protects the connectivity and function of the SVG endothelium. Our data suggest that the EDI can preserve focal adhesions in VECs during short-term storage after graft harvesting. This might explain the superiority of the EDI in maintaining most of the endothelium in venous CABG surgery conduits.

Limiting Transactivator Amounts Contribute to Transgene Mosaicism in Tet-On All-in-One Systems.

MicroRNAs play an essential role in cell homeostasis and have been proposed as therapeutic agents. One strategy to deliver microRNAs is to genetically engineer target cells to express microRNAs of interest. However, to control dosage and timing, as well as to limit potential side-effects, microRNAs' expression should ideally be under exogenous, inducible control. Conditional expression of miRNA-based short hairpin RNAs (shRNAmirs) via gene regulatory circuits such as the Tet-system is therefore a promising strategy to control shRNAmirs' expression in research and therapy. Single vector approaches like Tet-On all-in-one designs are more compatible with potential clinical applications by providing the Tet-On system components in a single round of genetic engineering. However, all-in-one systems often come at the expense of heterogeneous and unstable expression. In this study, we aimed to understand the causes that lead to such erratic transgene expression. By using a reporter cell, we found that the degree of heterogeneity mostly correlated with reverse tetracycline transactivator (rtTA) expression levels. Moreover, the targeted integration of a potent rtTA expression cassette into a genomic safe harbor locus functionally rescued previously silenced rtTA-responsive transcription units. Overall, our results suggest that ensuring homogenous and stable rtTA expression is essential for the robust and reliable performance of future Tet-On all-in-one designs.

The path to a hemocompatible cardiovascular implant: Advances and challenges of current endothelialization strategies.

Cardiovascular (CV) implants are still associated with thrombogenicity due to insufficient hemocompatibility. Endothelialization of their luminal surface is a promising strategy to increase their hemocompatibility. In this review, we provide a collection of research studies and review articles aiming to summarize the recent efforts on surface modifications of CV implants, including stents, grafts, valves, and ventricular assist devises. We focus in particular on the implementation of micrometer or nanoscale surface modifications, physical characteristics of known biomaterials (such as wetness and stiffness), and surface morphological features (such as gratings, fibers, pores, and pits). We also review how biomechanical signals originating from the endothelial cell for surface interaction can be directed by topography engineering approaches toward the survival of the endothelium and its long-term adaptation. Finally, we summarize the regulatory and economic challenges that may prevent clinical implementation of endothelialized CV implants.