To what degree patient-reported symptoms of central sensitization, kinesiophobia, disability, sleep, and life quality associated with 24-h heart rate variability and actigraphy measurements?

OBJECTIVES: Chronic musculoskeletal pain is associated with decreased parasympathetic and increased sympathetic activity in the autonomic nervous system. The objective of this study was to determine the associations between objective measures of heart rate variability (a measure of autonomic nervous system function), actigraphy (a measure of activity and sleep quality), respiration rates, and subjective patient-reported outcome measures (PROMs) of central sensitization, kinesiophobia, disability, the effect of pain on sleep, and life quality. METHODS: Thirty-eight study subjects were divided into two subgroups, including low symptoms of central sensitization (n = 18) and high symptoms of central sensitization (n = 20), based on patient-reported scores on the Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI). Heart rate variability (HRV) and actigraphy measurements were carried out simultaneously in 24 h measurement during wakefulness and sleep. RESULTS: A decrease in HRV during the first 2 h of sleep was stronger in the low CSI subgroup compared to the high CSI subgroup. Otherwise, all other HRV and actigraphy parameters and subjective measures of central sensitization, disability, kinesiophobia, the effect of pain on sleep, and quality of life showed only little associations. DISCUSSION: The high CSI subgroup reported significantly more severe symptoms of disability, kinesiophobia, sleep, and quality of life compared to the low CSI subgroup. However, there were only small and nonsignificant trend in increased sympathetic nervous system activity and poorer sleep quality on the high central sensitization subgroup. Moreover, very little differences in respiratory rates were found between the groups.

Cross-cultural adaptation and validation of the Finnish version of the central sensitization inventory and its relationship with dizziness and postural control.

BACKGROUND: Central Sensitization (CS) involves dysfunction in neurophysiological mechanisms that increase neuronal responses to both noxious and non-noxious stimuli in the central nervous system. The Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI) is considered the leading patient-reported outcome measure for assessing CS-related symptoms. The aim of this study was to translate and cross-culturally adapt the CSI into Finnish (CSI-FI) and to evaluate its psychometric properties. METHODS: Translation and cross-cultural validation of the CSI was conducted according to established guidelines. The validation sample was 229 subjects, including 42 pain free controls and 187 subjects with chronic musculoskeletal pain. The CSI-FI was evaluated for internal consistency, test-retest reliability, exploratory factor analysis with maximum likelihood extraction, relationship with subject-reported outcome measures [Tampa scale of kinesiophobia (TSK), the Depression scale (DEPS), 5-level EQ-5D version (EQ-5 L-5D), Roland-Morris Disability Questionnaire (RMDQ), and Pain and Sleep Questionnaire Three-Item Index (PSQ-3)], pain history, subjective symptoms of dizziness, and CS-related diagnoses on CSI part B. Furthermore, we studied the ability of the CSI-FI to distinguish pain free controls, subjects with chronic pain in a single body area, and subjects with multisite chronic pain. In addition, we studied the relationship of CSI-FI scores with postural control on a force plate. RESULTS: The CSI-FI demonstrated good internal consistency (0.884) and excellent test-retest reliability (0.933) with a 7 ± 1 day gap between test administrations. Exploratory factor analysis with maximum likelihood extraction yielded a one factor solution. Fair to good correlations were found between the CSI-FI and the TSK, DEPS, EQ-5 L-5D, RMDQ, and PSQ-3. Subjective symptoms of dizziness correlated better with CSI-FI scores than any of the CS-related diagnoses on CSI part B. Total CSI-FI scores successfully distinguished between pain free controls, subjects with chronic pain in a single body area, and subjects with multisite chronic pain. The multisite pain group reported significantly more dizziness symptoms than the other two groups. Force plate measurements showed no relationship between postural control and CSI-FI scores. CONCLUSION: The CSI-FI translation was successfully cross-culturally adapted and validated into Finnish. CSI-FI psychometric properties and scores were all in acceptable levels and in line with previous CSI validations. The CSI-FI appears to be a valid and reliable instrument for assessing CS-related symptomology in Finnish-speaking populations.

Psychometric validation of the Polish version of the Central Sensitization Inventory in subjects with chronic spinal pain.

BACKGROUND: Central sensitization is an amplification of neuronal signaling within the central nervous system. The Central Sensitization Inventory was introduced in 2012. A Polish version of the CSI (CSI-Pol) was developed in 2019, but it was not psychometrically validated. The aim of this study was to validate the CSI-Pol in a sample of Polish-speaking patients with chronic spinal pain and compare them with a group of healthy control subjects. METHODS: The CSI-Pol was administered to 151 patients with chronic spinal pain recruited from two centers. It was re-administered 7 days later. The psychometric properties were then evaluated, including test-retest reliability, construct validity, factor structure and internal consistency. We correlated the CSI-Pol with functional scales, depression and social support scales and compared CSI-Pol scores in the clinical subjects with 30 healthy control subjects recruited from medical staff and their families. RESULTS: The CSI-Pol demonstrated excellent internal consistency (Cronbach's α =0,933) and test-retest reliability (Intraclass Correlation Coefficients - ICC =0.96), as well as significant positive associations with other patient-reported scales, including the Neck Disability Index (r = 0.593), Revised Oswestry Low Back Pain Disability Questionnaire (r = 0.422), and other measures of functional and depressive states. An exploratory factor analysis resulted in a 4-factor model. CSI-Pol scores in the clinical sample (35.27 ± 17.25) were significantly higher than the control sample (23.3 ± 8.9). CONCLUSION: The results of this study suggest that the CSI-Pol may be a useful clinical tool for assessing central sensitization related symptoms and guiding appropriate treatment in Polish-speaking patients with spinal pain.

Cross-cultural adaptation and validation of the German Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI-GE).

BACKGROUND: The Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI) is a screening tool designed to detect symptoms related to Central Sensitization (CS) and Central Sensitivity Syndromes (CSS) by measuring the degree of related phenomena. The objective of this study was to create a German, culturally-adapted version of the CSI and to test its psychometric properties. METHODS: A German version of the CSI (CSI-GE) was developed, culturally-adapted, and pretested for comprehensibility. The psychometric properties of the resulting version were validated in a clinical study with chronic pain and pain-free control subjects. To assess retest reliability, the CSI-GE was administered twice to a subgroup of patients. Structural validity was tested using factor analyses. To investigate construct validity a hypotheses testing approach was used, including (1) correlations between the CSI-GE and several other well-established questionnaires as well as (2) an investigation of the CSI-GE discriminative power between different subgroups of participants believed to have different degrees of CS. RESULTS: The CSI-GE showed excellent reliability, including high test-retest characteristics. Factor analyses confirmed a bi-factor dimensionality as has been determined previously. Analysing construct validity 6 out of 11 hypotheses (55%) were met. CSI-GE scores differentiated between subgroups according to expectations. Correlations between CSI-GE scores and other questionnaires suggested that none of the correlated constructs was identical, but there was overlap with other questionnaires based on symptom load. Several correlations did not fit with our current understanding of CS. CONCLUSION: The CSI-GE appears to be a reliable tool for measuring CS/CSS-related symptomatology. Whether this implies that the CSI-GE measures the degree of CS within an individual subject remains unknown. The resulting score should be interpreted cautiously until further clarification of the construct.

Translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and measurement properties of the Nepali version of the central sensitization inventory (CSI).

BACKGROUND: Central sensitization is thought to be an important contributing factor in many chronic pain disorders. The Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI) is a patient-reported measure frequently used to assess symptoms related to central sensitization. The aims of the study were to translate and cross-culturally adapt the CSI into Nepali (CSI-NP) and assess its measurement properties. METHODS: The CSI was translated into Nepali using recommended guidelines. The CSI-NP was then administered on 100 Nepalese adults with sub-acute and chronic musculoskeletal pain with additional demographic and pain-related questions. The CSI-Nepali was administered again about 2 weeks later. Four measurement properties of the CSI-NP were evaluated: (1) internal consistency using Cronbach's alpha, (2) test-retest reliability using intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC2,1), (3) measurement errors, and (4) construct validity testing five a priori hypotheses. Confirmation of construct validity was determined if a minimum of 75% of the hypotheses were met. RESULTS: The CSI was successfully translated into Nepali. Internal consistency and test-retest reliability were both excellent (Cronbach's alpha = 0.91, and ICC = 0.98). The standard error of measurement was 0.31 and the smallest detectable change was 0.86. Four out of five (80%) a priori hypotheses were met, confirming the construct validity: the CSI-NP correlated strongly with the Pain Catastrophizing Scale total scores (r = 0.50); moderately with the total number of pain descriptors (r = 0.35); weakly with the Numerical Rating Scale (r = 0.25); and women had significantly higher CSI scores than men. However, the CSI scores did not correlate significantly with the total duration of pain, as hypothesized (r = 0.10). CONCLUSIONS: The Nepali translation of the CSI demonstrated excellent reliability and construct validity in adults with musculoskeletal pain. It is now available to Nepali health care providers to help assess central sensitization-related signs and symptoms in individuals with musculoskeletal pain in research or clinical practice to advance the understanding of central sensitization in Nepalese samples.

Central Sensitization in Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain Disorders in Different Populations: A Cross-Sectional Study.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic musculoskeletal pain disorders (CMPDs) are among the leading causes of disabilities across populations, resulting in high social and financial burden. This persistent pain condition may include the central sensitization (CS) phenomenon, which implies a wide range of symptoms and that may be taken into account in CMPD treatment. CS symptoms can be measured by the Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI). The aims of the study were to describe CS symptoms in patients suffering from several CMPDs and to analyze differences due to gender, age, and body mass index (BMI). DESIGN: This cross-sectional study recruited a total of 395 Spanish participants suffering from several CMPDs. SETTING: CS symptoms were measured with the Spanish Version of the CSI. The total score (0-100) and a cutoff score of 40 were recorded. SUBJECTS: A total of 395 participants were included. RESULTS: The mean CSI total score for the whole sample was 24.6 ± 12.0 points. CSI total score had subclinical values in the whole sample, whereas participants with scores >40 were found across different CMPDs, such as low back pain (37.8%) and neck pain (32.4%); 14.6% of females and 1.7% of males presented CSI scores >40. Patients showed significant differences in CSI cutoff point by gender (P = 0.010) and CSI total score by age (P = 0.014). CONCLUSIONS: Given the high prevalence of clinically relevant CSI scores (>40) in people with a CMPD, especially low back pain and neck pain, we recommend that clinicians supplement their assessment with the CSI for improved decision-making during treatment.

Establishing Central Sensitization-Related Symptom Severity Subgroups: A Multicountry Study Using the Central Sensitization Inventory.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of this study was to identify central sensitization-related symptom severity subgroups in a large multicountry sample composed of patients with chronic pain and pain-free individuals using the Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI). METHODS: A large, pooled international (N = 8 countries) sample of chronic pain patients plus healthy subjects (total N = 2,620) was randomly divided into two subsamples for cross-validation purposes. First, a hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) was performed using CSI item-level data as clustering variables (test sample; N = 1,312). Second, a latent profile analysis (LPA) was conducted to confirm the optimal number of CSI clusters (validation sample; N = 1,308). Finally, to promote implementation in real-world clinical practice, we built a free online Central Sensitization Inventory Symptom Severity Calculator. RESULTS: In both HCA (N = 1,219 valid cases) and LPA (N = 1,245 valid cases) analyses, a three-cluster and three-profile solution, respectively, emerged as the most statistically optimal and clinically meaningful. Clusters were labeled as follows: (i) Low Level of CS-Related Symptom Severity, (ii) Medium Level of CS-Related Symptom Severity, and (iii) High Level of CS-Related Symptom Severity. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicated that a three-cluster solution clearly captured the heterogeneity of the CSI data. The calculator might provide an efficient way of classifying subjects into the cluster groups. Future studies should analyze the extent to which the CSI cluster classification correlates with other patient-reported and objective signs and symptoms of CS in patients with chronic pain, their associations with clinical outcomes, health-related costs, biomarkers, (etc.), and responsiveness to treatment.

Cross-cultural adaptation and validity of the Spanish fear-avoidance components scale and clinical implications in primary care.

BACKGROUND: Pain-related fear-avoidance (FA) is a common problem affecting many patients with painful medical conditions. As there is great interest in the clinical importance of the relationship between FA and disability, several questionnaires have been developed to measure FA. The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS) is a recently developed patient-reported instrument that addresses critical issues not previously considered in previous FA-related questionnaires. The original English version of the FACS demonstrated good reliability, internal consistency, and construct, criterion, and predictive validity. Two factors were determined: General Fear Avoidance and Types of Activities That are Avoided. The aim of this study was to to translate the FACS into European-style Spanish (FACS-Sp), and validate its psychometric properties. METHODS: This two-stage psychometric study included 330 subjects with various chronic musculoskeletal pain disorders. An initial translation and cross-cultural adaptation of the FACS, from English to Spanish, was performed. Then, critical psychometric properties were analysed, including internal consistency by Cronbach's α coefficients, structural validity from the Maximum Likelihood Extraction (MLE), and convergent validity by Pearson correlation with the Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI). RESULTS: This study reports for the first time the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the FACS. Total scores ranged from 0 to 88 points, with a mean of 30.49 (±17.18). The FACS-Sp showed a high internal consistency for factor 1 (α = 0.902) and factor 2 (α = 0.88). Factor structure was two-dimensional and supported structural validity, accounting for 48.75% of the total variance. Convergent validity analysis found a significant Pearson correlation r = 0.414. CONCLUSION: This study reports for the first time the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the FACS-Sp. Psychometric properties supported the validation of FACS-Sp and ensured the conceptual equivalence with the original English version. In primary care and chronic pain rehabilitation, FA assessment is crucial for clinical decision-making and treatment guidance. The FACS-Sp offers a new measure of FA in Spanish speaking populations. Future research on the FACS-Sp should evaluate test-retest reliability, treatment responsiveness and psychometric comparisons with other translated versions.

Cross-cultural Adaptation and Psychometric Properties of the Greek Version of the Central Sensitization Inventory.

OBJECTIVES: Recent studies support the opinion that central sensitization (CS) plays an important role in the pathophysiology of many chronic pain conditions. CS refers to hyperexcitability of the central nervous system, which can result in pain hypersensitivity and other somatosensory symptoms. Recognition of CS-related symptomology is crucial in chronic pain evaluation and rehabilitation. The Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI) was created to evaluate symptoms that have been found to be associated with CS. The aim of the current study was the cross-cultural adaptation of the CSI into Greek (CSI-Gr). METHODS: To evaluate discriminate validity, 200 patients with chronic pain and 50 healthy control subjects participated. The sample was divided into 4 diagnostic groups (fibromyalgia, single pain complaints, multiple pain complaints, and a control group) and into 5 CSI severity subgroups, from subclinical to extreme. Convergent validity was determined by evaluation of the relationship between the CSI-Gr and the Pain Catastrophizing Scale (PCS). Additionally, 30 patients completed the CSI a second time for the purpose of a test/retest analysis. RESULTS: The results showed high internal consistency (Cronbach's alpha = 0.994) and test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient = 0.993). The standard error of measurement was 2.1. The CSI-Gr correlated moderately with the PCS (r = 0.68). Statistically significant differences were found among the 3 comparison groups, with patients who had fibromyalgia reporting the highest CSI severity and healthy control subjects reporting the lowest severity. CONCLUSIONS: As determined in the present study, the CSI-Gr was found to be a reliable and valid tool for recognition of CS-related symptomology.

Convergent and Discriminant Validity of the Serbian Version of the Central Sensitization Inventory.

OBJECTIVES: The goal of the present study was to explore additional evidence of validity of the Serbian version of the Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI), a patient-reported outcome measure of symptoms that have been found to be associated with central sensitization (CS). The CSI has been found to be psychometrically sound, and has demonstrated evidence of convergent and discriminant validity in numerous published studies and in multiple languages. METHODS: CSI data were collected from 399 patients with chronic pain who had various diagnoses and from 146 pain-free controls. In addition, the patient sample completed a battery of validated patient-reported outcome measures of sleep problems, cognitive problems, pain catastrophizing, pain-related fear-avoidance, decreased quality of life, and decreased perception of social support. Six patient subgroups were formed, with presumably different levels of CS (including those with fibromyalgia, multiple pain sites, and localized pain sites). RESULTS: Significant differences were found in total CSI scores among the controls and patient subgroups. Those with fibromyalgia and multiple pathologies scored highest and the control subjects scored lowest. Other patient-reported CS-related symptom dimensions were significantly correlated with total CSI scores. When the patients were divided into CSI severity subgroups (from subclinical to extreme), the severity of these other symptom dimensions increased with the severity of CSI scores. CONCLUSIONS: The current study successfully demonstrated additional evidence of the convergent and discriminant validity of the Serbian version of the CSI.

Does the Length of Disability between Injury and Functional Restoration Program Entry Affect Treatment Outcomes for Patients with Chronic Disabling Occupational Musculoskeletal Disorders?

Purpose Functional restoration programs (FRPs), for patients with chronic disabling occupational musculoskeletal disorders (CDOMDs), have consistently demonstrated positive socioeconomic treatment outcomes, including decreased psychosocial distress and increased work return. The pre-treatment length of disability (LOD), or time between injury and treatment admission, has been shown to influence FRP work outcomes. Some studies have found that shorter LOD is associated with better work outcomes. However, few studies have actually examined cohorts with LOD duration longer than 18 months. This present study evaluated the effects of extended LOD (beyond 18 months) on important treatment outcomes. Methods A total cohort of 1413 CDOMD patients entered an FRP. Of those, 312 did not complete the program, so they were eliminated from outcome analyses. The 1101 patients who completed the FRP were classified based on LOD: Late Rehabilitation (LR, 3-6 months, n = 190); Chronic Disability (CD, 7-17 months, n = 494); and Late Chronic Disability (LCD). The LCD, in turn, consisted of four separate subgroups: 18-23 months (LCD-18, n = 110); 24-35 months (LCD-24, n = 123); 36-71 months (LCD-36, n = 74); and 72+ months (LCD-72, n = 110). Patients were evaluated upon admission and were reassessed at discharge. Those patients who chose to pursue work goals post-treatment (n = 912) were assessed 1-year later. Results Longer LOD was associated with less likelihood of completing the FRP (p < .001). Compared to the other LOD groups, a relatively large percentage of patients (47%) in the longest- disability group were receiving social security disability benefits. Associations were found between longer LOD and more severe patient-reported pain, disability, and depressive symptoms at treatment admission. At discharge, symptom severity decreased for these patient-reported variables in all LOD groups (p < .001). Using binary logistic regressions, it was found that LOD significantly predicted work-return (Wald = 11.672, p = .04) and work-retention (Wald = 11.811, p = .04) after controlling for covariates. Based on the LOD groups, the percentage of patients returning to, and retaining work, ranged from 75.6 to 94.1%, and from 66.7 to 86.3%, respectively. The odds of LCD-24 and LCD-72 patients returning to work were 2.9, and 7.4, respectfully, less likely, compared to LR patients. Furthermore, the odds of LCD-24 and LCD-72 patients retaining work were 3.3 and 3.8 times, respectively, less likely, compared to LR patients. Conclusions Long LOD was a risk factor for FRP non-completion, and was associated with more severe patient-reported variables, including pain intensity and perceived disability. Furthermore, long LOD was a significant predictor for work outcomes at 1 year following FRP discharge. Nevertheless, a large percentage of longer LOD (>24 months) patients had returned to work within the year after discharge (above 85%), and had retained at least part-time work 1-year later (above 66%). These results support the effectiveness of the FRP in mitigating the effects of extended LOD in a large percentage of long-term LOD patients.

Cross-Cultural Adaptation and Psychometric Validation of the Serbian Version of the Central Sensitization Inventory.

OBJECTIVES: It has been increasingly recognized that many chronic pain conditions are associated with central sensitization (CS). The Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI) is a potentially useful tool for screening patients whose presenting symptoms are suspected of being related to CS, so that additional diagnostic evaluation can be performed and appropriate treatment can be initiated. The original English version is currently not available in Serbian. METHODS: The CSI was translated into Serbian (CSI-Serb) and then psychometrically evaluated in a sample of 363 chronic pain subjects. RESULTS: The CSI-Serb showed a high degree of internal consistency (Cronbach's α = 0.909), excellent test-retest reliability (intraclass correlation coefficient type 2.1 = 0.947), and a significant goodness of fit test result (χ2  = 888.44; P < 0.001). A factor analysis confirmed a 4-factor solution, as found by the original authors of the CSI, with all items retained. Higher CSI-Serb scores were associated with higher pain severity and longer pain duration. Total CSI scores distinguished between 3 subject groups with presumably different levels of CS, including fibromyalgia (53.3, SD = 11.2), chronic regional pain only (29.7, SD = 11.6), and a pain-free control group (20.9, SD = 9.1). CONCLUSIONS: The results of the present study indicate strong psychometric properties, including evidence of convergent and discriminant validity, of the CSI-Serb. These results correspond with those of other translated versions of the CSI that have been psychometrically evaluated and published. Due to the current interest in CS, and its relationship with many chronic pain conditions, it is anticipated that the CSI-Serb will benefit Serbian-speaking clinicians in the evaluation of patients with chronic pain conditions.

Establishing Clinically Relevant Severity Levels for the Central Sensitization Inventory.

OBJECTIVES: The aim of this study was to create and validate severity levels for the central sensitization inventory (CSI), a valid and reliable patient-reported outcome instrument designed to identify patients whose presenting symptoms may be related to a central sensitivity syndrome (CSS; eg, fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome), with a proposed common etiology of central sensitization (CS). METHODS: Based on CSI score means and standard deviations from previously published subject samples, the following CSI severity levels were established: subclinical = 0 to 29; mild = 30 to 39; moderate = 40 to 49; severe = 50 to 59; and extreme = 60 to 100. The concurrent validity of the CSI severity levels was then confirmed in a separate chronic pain patient sample (58% with a CSS diagnosis and 42% without) by demonstrating associations between CSI scores and (1) the number of physician-diagnosed CSSs; (2) CSI score distributions in both CSS and non-CSS patient samples; (3) patient-reported history of CSSs; and (4) patient-reported psychosocial measures, which are known to be associated with CSSs. RESULTS: Compared to the non-CSS patient subsample, the score distribution of the CSS patient subsample was skewed toward the higher severity ranges. CSI mean scores moved into higher severity levels as the number of individual CSS diagnoses increased. Patients who scored in the extreme CSI severity level were more likely to report previous diagnoses of fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue syndrome, temporomandibular joint disorder, tension/migraine headaches, and anxiety or panic attacks (P < 0.01). CSI severity levels were also associated with patient-reported depressive symptoms, perceived disability, sleep disturbance, and pain intensity (P ≤ 0.02). CONCLUSION: This study provides support for these CSI severity levels as a guideline for healthcare providers and researchers in interpreting CSI scores and evaluating treatment responsiveness.

The Fear-avoidance Components Scale (FACS): Development and Psychometric Evaluation of a New Measure of Pain-related Fear Avoidance.

Pain-related fear avoidance (FA), a common problem for patients with painful medical conditions, involves pain-related catastrophizing cognitions, hypervigilance, and avoidance behaviors, which can ultimately lead to decreased functioning, depression, and disability. Several patient-reported instruments have been developed to measure FA, but they have been criticized for limited construct validity, inadequate item specificity, lack of cutoff scores, and missing important FA components. The Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS) is a new patient-reported measure designed to comprehensively evaluate FA in patients with painful medical conditions. It combines important components of FA found in prior FA scales, while trying to correct some of their deficiencies, within a framework of the most current FA model. Psychometric evaluation of the FACS found high internal consistency (α = 0.92) and high test/retest reliability (r = 0.90-0.94, P < 0.01). FACS scores differentiated between 2 separate chronic pain patient samples and a nonpatient comparison group. When clinically relevant severity levels were created, FACS severity scores were highly associated with FA-related patient-reported psychosocial and objective lifting performance variables. These results suggest that the FACS is a psychometrically strong and reliable measure that can help healthcare providers assess FA-related barriers to function and recovery.

The Potential Utility of the Patient Health Questionnaire as a Screener for Psychiatric Comorbidity in a Chronic Disabling Occupational Musculoskeletal Disorder Population.

OBJECTIVES: The patient health questionnaire (PHQ) is designed for screening psychopathology in primary care settings. However, little is known about its clinical utility in other chronic pain populations, which usually have high psychiatric comorbidities. DESIGN: A consecutive cohort of 546 patients with chronic disabling occupational musculoskeletal disorder (CDOMD) was administered and compared upon psychosocial assessments, including the PHQ and a structured clinical interview for DSM-IV (SCID). Four PHQ modules were assessed: major depressive disorder (MDD), generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), panic disorder (PD), and alcohol use disorders (AUD) [including both alcohol abuse and dependence]. Based on the SCID diagnosis, sensitivity and specificity were determined. RESULTS: The specificity of the PHQ ranged from moderate to high for all 4 PHQ modules (MDD, 0.79; GAD, 0.67; PD, 0.89; AUD, 0.97). However, the sensitivity was relatively low: MDD (0.58); GAD (0.61); PD (0.49); and AUD (0.24). The PHQ was also associated with psychosocial variables. Patients whose PHQ showed MDD, GAD, or PD reported significantly more depressive symptoms and perceived disability than patients who did not (Ps < 0.001). Patients with MDD or GAD reported significantly higher pain than those without (Ps < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The strong specificity of the PHQ appears to be its primary strength for this cohort. Due to its high specificity, the PHQ could be employed as an additional screening tool to help rule out potential psychiatric comorbidity in patients with CDOMD. The low sensitivity of the PHQ in this population, however, remains a weakness of the PHQ.

Does the economy affect functional restoration outcomes for patients with chronic disabling occupational musculoskeletal disorders?

PURPOSE: To determine how the economy affects psychosocial and socioeconomic treatment outcomes in a cohort of chronic disabling occupational musculoskeletal disorder (CDOMD) patients who completed a functional restoration program (FRP). METHODS: A cohort of 969 CDOMD patients with active workers' compensation claims completed an FRP (a medically-supervised, quantitatively-directed exercise progression program, with multi-modal disability management). A good economy (GE) group (n = 532) was released to work during a low unemployment period (2005-2007), and a poor economy (PE) group (n = 437) was released during a higher unemployment period (2008-2010). Patients were evaluated upon admission for demographic and psychosocial variables, and were reassessed at discharge. Socioeconomic outcomes, including work return and work retention 1 year post-discharge, were collected. RESULTS: Some significant differences in psychosocial self-report data were found, but most of the effect sizes were small, so caution should be made when interpreting the data. Compared to the PE group, the GE group reported more depressive symptoms and disability at admission, but demonstrated a larger decrease in depressive symptoms and disability and increase in self-reported quality of life at discharge. The PE group had lower rates of work return and retention 1-year after discharge, even after controlling for other factors such as length of disability and admission work status. CONCLUSIONS: CDOMD patients who completed an FRP in a PE year were less likely to return to, or retain, work 1-year after discharge, demonstrating that a PE can be an additional barrier to post-discharge work outcomes. A difference in State unemployment rates of <3% (7 vs. 5%) had a disproportionate effect on patients' failure to return to (19 vs. 6%) or retain (28 vs. 15%) work.

Correction: Cross-cultural translation and psychometric validation of the French version of the Fear-Avoidance Components Scale (FACS).

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0288899.].

Translation, cross-cultural adaptation, and measurement properties of the Arabic version of the fear avoidance components scale.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to translate, validate, and cross-culturally adapt the original FACS into the Arabic language. METHODS: The English version of the FACS was translated and culturally adapted into Arabic following international guidelines. The psychometric properties of the final version of the FACS-Arabic (FACS-A) were tested among 119 patients with different musculoskeletal (MSK) pain disorders. RESULTS: The Cronbach's α for the FACS-A was 0.86. The test-retest reliability, measured with intraclass correlation coefficient, was 0.80. The FACS-A showed positive significant correlations with other psychological patient-reported measures, including the pain catastrophizing scale (PCS) (r = 0.545); p ≤ 0.01), Brief Pain Inventory (BPI)-pain score (r = 0.546; p ≤ 0.01), BPI-pain interference score (r = 0.511; p ≤ 0.01), and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS) (r = 0.451, 0.336, respectively; p ≤ 0.01). Confirmatory factor analysis of the FACS-A confirmed the two-factor structure found in the original English version. CONCLUSION: This study determined the FACS-A to be a reliable and valid tool for the assessment of the fear-avoidance beliefs in Arabic-speaking individuals with MSK pain disorders.

The Arabic version of the fear avoidance component scale is a reliable and valid tool to assess pain fear-avoidance beliefs in individuals with musculoskeletal pain.This tool can be used to assess fear-avoidance beliefs in clinical practice for Arabic-speaking individuals.

Is the Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI) associated with quantitative sensory testing (QST)? A systematic review and meta-analysis.

Central sensitization (CS) involves an amplification of neural processing within the central nervous system that can result in widespread pain patterns and hypersensitivity to stimuli. The Central Sensitization Inventory (CSI) and various quantitative sensory testing (QST) methods purport to assess clinical markers of CS. The purpose of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to summarize and quantify the associations between total CSI scores and QST measures from previous studies. A systematic search identified 39 unique studies that were deemed eligible for the systematic review and 33 studies for meta-analyses (with 3314 subjects and 154 effect sizes), including five QST modalities: conditioned pain modulation, temporal summation, pressure pain threshold, heat pain threshold, and cold pain threshold. The meta-analysis yielded statistically significant CSI-QST correlations in total subject samples for all five QST modalities. The strongest associations were identified between CSI scores and pain threshold testing, especially pressure pain threshold, in which 51% of effects sizes, from 29 studies and 3071 subjects, were determined to be in a medium to large range.