Distance from main arteries influences microstructural and functional brain tissue characteristics.

Given the substantial dependence of neurons on continuous supply of energy, the distribution of major cerebral arteries opens a question whether the distance from the main supply arteries constitutes a modulating factor for the microstructural and functional properties of brain tissue. To tackle this question, multimodal MRI acquisitions of 102 healthy volunteers over the full adult age span were utilised. Relaxation along a fictitious field in the rotating frame of rank n = 4 (RAFF4), adiabatic T1ρ, T2ρ,  and intracellular volume fraction (fICVF) derived from diffusion-weighted imaging were implemented to quantify microstructural (cellularity, myelin density, iron concentration) tissue characteristics and degree centrality and fractional amplitude of low-frequency fluctuations to probe for functional metrics. Inverse correlation of arterial distance with robust homogeneity was detected for T1ρ, T2ρ and RAFF4 for cortical grey matter and white matter, showing substantial complex microstructural differences between brain tissue close and farther from main arterial trunks. Albeit with wider variability, functional metrics pointed to increased connectivity and neuronal activity in areas farther from main arteries. Surprisingly, multiple of these microstructural and functional distance-based gradients diminished with higher age, pointing to uniformization of brain tissue with ageing. All in all, this pilot study provides a novel insight on brain regionalisation based on artery distance, which merits further investigation to validate its biological underpinnings.

Quantitative brain morphometry identifies cerebellar, cortical, and subcortical gray and white matter atrophy in late-onset Tay-Sachs disease.

Cerebellar atrophy is a characteristic sign of late-onset Tay-Sachs disease (LOTS). Other structural neuroimaging abnormalities are inconsistently reported. Our study aimed to perform a detailed whole-brain analysis and quantitatively characterize morphometric changes in LOTS patients. Fourteen patients (8 M/6F) with LOTS from three centers were included in this retrospective study. For morphometric brain analyses, we used deformation-based morphometry, voxel-based morphometry, surface-based morphometry, and spatially unbiased cerebellar atlas template. The quantitative whole-brain morphometric analysis confirmed the finding of profound pontocerebellar atrophy with most affected cerebellar lobules V and VI in LOTS patients. Additionally, the atrophy of structures mainly involved in motor control, including bilateral ventral and lateral thalamic nuclei, primary motor and sensory cortex, supplementary motor area, and white matter regions containing corticospinal tract, was present. The atrophy of the right amygdala, hippocampus, and regions of occipital, parietal and temporal white matter was also observed in LOTS patients in contrast with controls (p < 0.05, FWE corrected). Patients with dysarthria and those initially presenting with ataxia had more severe cerebellar atrophy. Our results show predominant impairment of cerebellar regions responsible for speech and hand motor function in LOTS patients. Widespread morphological changes of motor cortical and subcortical regions and tracts in white matter indicate abnormalities in central motor circuits likely coresponsible for impaired speech and motor function.

Tralesinidase Alfa Enzyme Replacement Therapy Prevents Disease Manifestations in a Canine Model of Mucopolysaccharidosis Type IIIB.

Mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB (MPS IIIB; Sanfilippo syndrome B; OMIM #252920) is a lethal, pediatric, neuropathic, autosomal recessive, and lysosomal storage disease with no approved therapy. Patients are deficient in the activity of N-acetyl-alpha-glucosaminidase (NAGLU; EC 3.2.150), necessary for normal lysosomal degradation of the glycosaminoglycan heparan sulfate (HS). Tralesinidase alfa (TA), a fusion protein comprised of recombinant human NAGLU and a modified human insulin-like growth factor 2, is in development as an enzyme replacement therapy that is administered via intracerebroventricular (ICV) infusion, thus circumventing the blood brain barrier. Previous studies have confirmed ICV infusion results in widespread distribution of TA throughout the brains of mice and nonhuman primates. We assessed the long-term tolerability, pharmacology, and clinical efficacy of TA in a canine model of MPS IIIB over a 20-month study. Long-term administration of TA was well tolerated as compared with administration of vehicle. TA was widely distributed across brain regions, which was confirmed in a follow-up 8-week pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic study. MPS IIIB dogs treated for up to 20 months had near-normal levels of HS and nonreducing ends of HS in cerebrospinal fluid and central nervous system (CNS) tissues. TA-treated MPS IIIB dogs performed better on cognitive tests and had improved CNS pathology and decreased cerebellar volume loss relative to vehicle-treated MPS IIIB dogs. These findings demonstrate the ability of TA to prevent or limit the biochemical, pathologic, and cognitive manifestations of canine MPS IIIB disease, thus providing support of its potential long-term tolerability and efficacy in MPS IIIB subjects. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: This work illustrates the efficacy and tolerability of tralesinidase alfa as a potential therapeutic for patients with mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB (MPS IIIB) by documenting that administration to the central nervous system of MPS IIIB dogs prevents the accumulation of disease-associated glycosaminoglycans in lysosomes, hepatomegaly, cerebellar atrophy, and cognitive decline.

Quantitative brain MRI morphology in severe and attenuated forms of mucopolysaccharidosis type I.

OBJECTIVE: To assess our hypothesis that brain macrostructure is different in individuals with mucopolysaccharidosis type I (MPS I) and healthy controls (HC), we conducted a comprehensive multicenter study using a uniform quantitative magnetic resonance imaging (qMRI) protocol, with analyses that account for the effects of disease phenotype, age, and cognition. METHODS: Brain MRIs in 23 individuals with attenuated (MPS IA) and 38 with severe MPS I (MPS IH), aged 4-25 years, enrolled under the study protocol NCT01870375, were compared to 98 healthy controls. RESULTS: Cortical and subcortical gray matter, white matter, corpus callosum, ventricular and choroid plexus volumes in MPS I significantly differed from HC. Thicker cortex, lower white matter and corpus callosum volumes were already present at the youngest MPS I participants aged 4-5 years. Age-related differences were observed in both MPS I groups, but most markedly in MPS IH, particularly in cortical gray matter metrics. IQ scores were inversely associated with ventricular volume in both MPS I groups and were positively associated with cortical thickness only in MPS IA. CONCLUSIONS: Quantitatively-derived MRI measures distinguished MPS I participants from HC as well as severe from attenuated forms. Age-related neurodevelopmental trajectories in both MPS I forms differed from HC. The extent to which brain structure is altered by disease, potentially spared by treatment, and how it relates to neurocognitive dysfunction needs further exploration.

Longitudinal Natural History of Pediatric Subjects Affected with Mucopolysaccharidosis IIIB.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize the longitudinal natural history of disease progression in pediatric subjects affected with mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) IIIB. STUDY DESIGN: Sixty-five children with a confirmed diagnosis of MPS IIIB were enrolled into 1 of 2 natural history studies and followed for up to 4 years. Cognitive and adaptive behavior functions were analyzed in all subjects, and volumetric magnetic resonance imaging analysis of liver, spleen, and brain, as well as levels of heparan sulfate (HS) and heparan sulfate nonreducing ends (HS-NRE), were measured in a subset of subjects. RESULTS: The majority of subjects with MPS IIIB achieved an apex on both cognition and adaptive behavior age equivalent scales between age 3 and 6 years. Development quotients for both cognition and adaptive behavior follow a linear trajectory by which subjects reach a nadir with a score <25 for an age equivalent of 24 months by age 8 years on average and by 13.5 years at the latest. All tested subjects (n = 22) had HS and HS-NRE levels above the normal range in cerebrospinal fluid and plasma, along with signs of hepatomegaly. Subjects lost an average of 26 mL of brain volume (-2.7%) over 48 weeks, owing entirely to a loss of cortical gray matter (32 mL; -6.5%). CONCLUSIONS: MPS IIIB exists along a continuum based on cognitive decline and cortical gray matter atrophy. Although a few individuals with MPS IIIB have an attenuated phenotype, the majority follow predicted trajectories for both cognition and adaptive behavior. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov identifiers NCT02493998, NCT03227042, and NCT02754076.

Pontocerebellar atrophy is the hallmark neuroradiological finding in late-onset Tay-Sachs disease.

PURPOSE: Late-onset Tay-Sachs disease (LOTS) is a form of GM2 gangliosidosis, an autosomal recessive neurodegenerative disorder characterized by slowly progressive cerebellar ataxia, lower motor neuron disease, and psychiatric impairment due to mutations in the HEXA gene. The aim of our work was to identify the characteristic brain MRI findings in this presumably underdiagnosed disease. METHODS: Clinical data and MRI findings from 16 patients (10F/6 M) with LOTS from two centers were independently assessed by two readers and compared to 16 age- and sex-related controls. RESULTS: Lower motor neuron disease (94%), psychiatric symptoms-psychosis (31%), cognitive impairment (38%) and depression (25%)-and symptoms of cerebellar impairment including dysarthria (94%), ataxia (81%) and tremor (69%), were the most common clinical features. On MRI, pontocerebellar atrophy was a constant finding. Compared to controls, LOTS patients had smaller mean middle cerebellar peduncle diameter (p < 0.0001), mean superior cerebellar peduncle diameter (p = 0.0002), mesencephalon sagittal area (p = 0.0002), pons sagittal area (p < 0.0001), and larger 4th ventricle transversal diameter (p < 0.0001). Mild corpus callosum thinning (37.5%), mild cortical atrophy (18.8%), and white matter T2 hyperintensities (12.5%) were also present. CONCLUSION: Given the characteristic clinical course and MRI findings of the pontocerebellar atrophy, late-onset Tay-Sachs disease should be considered in the differential diagnosis of adult-onset cerebellar ataxias.

White matter alteration and cerebellar atrophy are hallmarks of brain MRI in alpha-mannosidosis.

OBJECTIVE: Despite profound neurological symptomatology there are only few MRI studies focused on the brain abnormalities in alpha-mannosidosis (AM). Our aim was to characterize brain MRI findings in a large cohort of AM patients along with clinical manifestations. METHODS: Twenty-two brain MRIs acquired in 13 untreated AM patients (8 M/5F; median age 17 years) were independently assessed by three experienced readers and compared to 16 controls. RESULTS: Focal and/or diffuse hyperintense signals in the cerebral white matter were present in most (85%) patients. Cerebellar atrophy was common (62%), present from the age of 5 years. Progression was observed in two out of 6 patients with follow-up scans. Cortical atrophy (62%) and corpus callosum thinning (23%) were already present in a 13-month-old child. The presence of low T2 signal intensity in basal ganglia and thalami was excluded by the normalized signal intensity profiling. The enlargement of perivascular spaces in white matter (38%), widening of perioptic CSF spaces (62%), and enlargement of cisterna magna (85%) were also observed. Diploic space thickening (100%), mucosal thickening (69%) and sinus hypoplasia (54%) were the most frequent non-CNS abnormalities. CONCLUSION: White matter changes and cerebellar atrophy are proposed to be the characteristic brain MRI features of AM. The previously reported decreased T2 signal intensity in basal ganglia and thalami was not detected in this quantitative study. Rather, this relative MR appearance seems to be related to the diffuse high T2 signal in the adjacent white matter and not the gray matter iron deposition that has been hypothesized.

Long-term safety and clinical outcomes of intrathecal heparan-N-sulfatase in patients with Sanfilippo syndrome type A.

INTRODUCTION: Currently, there is no effective therapy for mucopolysaccharidosis IIIA (MPS IIIA). Intravenously-administered enzyme replacement therapies, while effective in other forms of MPS without neurological involvement, have not been successful in patients with MPS IIIA, as they are unable to cross the blood-brain barrier to improve neurological symptoms. We evaluated the long-term safety, tolerability, and clinical outcomes of recombinant human heparan-N-sulfatase (rhHNS) administered intrathecally (IT) in children with MPS IIIA in a phase 1/2 extension study. METHODS: Patients aged ≥3 years with MPS IIIA who had previously completed a phase 1/2 study and received ≥5 of the 6 planned rhHNS infusions via IT administration, were eligible for inclusion. Patients who received 10 mg in the phase 1/2 study had their dose increased to 45 mg. Patients who were treated with 45 mg or 90 mg rhHNS IT in the phase 1/2 study remained on this monthly dose in the extension study. rhHNS was administered via an intrathecal drug delivery device (IDDD). Primary endpoints included the type and severity of adverse events, presence of anti-rhHNS antibodies in the CSF and serum, and changes in laboratory values. Secondary endpoints included standardized neurocognitive assessments and brain magnetic resonance imaging. RESULTS: In the extension study, 12 patients with a mean (SD) age of 9.6 (7.3) years continued treatment with rhHNS IT for a median of 264.4 weeks. Ten of 12 patients completed the extension study. rhHNS IT was generally well-tolerated. All patients experienced at least one treatment-emergent adverse event (TEAE), most being mild or moderate in severity. No serious adverse events (SAEs) were considered related to the study drug, and no deaths occurred. Most SAEs were related to malfunctions of the IDDD. Declines from baseline in Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Third Edition or Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition, Nonverbal Index developmental quotient scores were evident at all rhHNS dosing groups: -17.97%, -18.99%, and -12.12% in the 10/45, 45, and 90 mg groups, respectively, at Month 54. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, rhHNS IT was well tolerated in the extension study. However, rhHNS IT was unable to slow the neurocognitive decline of patients with MPS IIIA. This study was subsequently terminated early because pre-specified efficacy criteria were not met, and the study did not yield clinical proof of concept. (Clinicaltrials.gov Identifier NCT01299727).

Intrathecal enzyme replacement for cognitive decline in mucopolysaccharidosis type I, a randomized, open-label, controlled pilot study.

Central nervous system manifestations of mucopolysaccharidosis type I (MPS I) such as cognitive impairment, hydrocephalus, and spinal cord compression are inadequately treated by intravenously-administered enzyme replacement therapy with laronidase (recombinant human alpha-L-iduronidase). While hematopoietic stem cell transplantation treats neurological symptoms, this therapy is not generally offered to attenuated MPS I patients. This study is a randomized, open-label, controlled pilot study of intrathecal laronidase in eight attenuated MPS I patients with cognitive impairment. Subjects ranged between 12 years and 50 years old with a median age of 18 years. All subjects had received intravenous laronidase prior to the study over a range of 4 to 10 years, with a mean of 7.75 years. Weekly intravenous laronidase was continued throughout the duration of the study. The randomization period was one year, during which control subjects attended all study visits and assessments, but did not receive any intrathecal laronidase. After the first year, all eight subjects received treatment for one additional year. There was no significant difference in neuropsychological assessment scores between control or treatment groups, either over the one-year randomized period or at 18 or 24 months. However, there was no significant decline in scores in the control group either. Adverse events included pain (injection site, back, groin), headache, neck spasm, and transient blurry vision. There were seven serious adverse events, one judged as possibly related (headache requiring hospitalization). There was no significant effect of intrathecal laronidase on cognitive impairment in older, attenuated MPS I patients over a two-year treatment period. A five-year open-label extension study is underway.

Spinal cord atrophy as a measure of severity of myelopathy in adrenoleukodystrophy.

All men and most women with X-linked adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) develop myelopathy in adulthood. As clinical trials with new potential disease-modifying therapies are emerging, sensitive outcome measures for quantifying myelopathy are needed. This prospective cohort study evaluated spinal cord size (cross-sectional area - CSA) and shape (eccentricity) as potential new quantitative outcome measures for myelopathy in ALD. Seventy-four baseline magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, acquired in 42 male ALD patients and 32 age-matched healthy controls, and 26 follow-up scans of ALD patients were included in the study. We used routine T1 -weighted MRI sequences to measure mean CSA, eccentricity, right-left and anteroposterior diameters in the cervical spinal cord. We compared MRI measurements between groups and correlated CSA with clinical outcome measures of disease severity. Longitudinally, we compared MRI measurements between baseline and 1-year follow-up. CSA was significantly smaller in patients compared to controls on all measured spinal cord levels (P < .001). The difference was completely explained by the effect of the symptomatic subgroup. Furthermore, the spinal cord showed flattening (higher eccentricity and smaller anteroposterior diameters) in patients. CSA correlated strongly with all clinical measures of severity of myelopathy. There was no detectable change in CSA after 1-year follow-up. The cervical spinal cord in symptomatic ALD patients is smaller and flattened compared to controls, possibly due to atrophy of the dorsal columns. CSA is a reliable marker of disease severity and can be a valuable outcome measure in long-term follow-up studies in ALD. SYNOPSIS: A prospective cohort study in 42 adrenoleukodystrophy (ALD) patients and 32 controls demonstrated that the spinal cord cross-sectional area of patients is smaller compared to healthy controls and correlates with severity of myelopathy in patients, hence it could be valuable as a much needed surrogate outcome measure.

Distinct progression patterns of brain disease in infantile and juvenile gangliosidoses: Volumetric quantitative MRI study.

BACKGROUND: GM1-gangliosidosis and GM2-gangliosidosis (Tay-Sachs disease and Sandhoff disease) are unrelenting heritable neurodegenerative conditions of lysosomal ganglioside accumulation. Although progressive brain atrophy is characteristic, longitudinal quantification of specific brain structures has not been systematically studied. OBJECTIVES: The goal of this longitudinal study has been to quantify and track brain MRI volume changes, including specific structure volume changes, at different times in disease progression of childhood gangliosidoses, and to explore quantitative brain MRI volumetry (qMRI) as a non-invasive marker of disease progression for future treatment trials. METHODS: Brain qMRI studies were performed in 14 patients with gangliosidoses (9 infantile, 5 juvenile) yearly. Cerebellar cortex and white matter, caudate, putamen, corpus callosum, ventricles, total brain, and intracranial volumes were measured, as well as total brain volume. Age-matched controls were available for the patients with the juvenile phenotype. RESULTS: The infantile phenotype of all gangliosidoses showed a consistent pattern of macrocephaly and rapidly increasing intracranial MRI volume with both (a) brain tissue volume (cerebral cortex and other smaller structures) and (b) ventricular volume (P<0.01 for all). In contrast to apparent enlargement of the total brain volume, and chiefly the enlarged cerebral cortex, a subset of smaller brain substructures generally decreased in size: the corpus callosum, caudate and putamen became smaller with time. The volume of cerebellar cortex also decreased in patients with infantile GM1-gangliosidosis and juvenile GM1- and GM2-gangliosidosis; however, infantile GM2-gangliosidosis cerebellar cortex was the exception, increasing in size. Elevated intracranial pressure (estimated by lumbar spinal pressure) was a common finding in infantile disease and showed continued increases as the disease progressed, yet lacked MRI signs of hydrocephalus except for increasing ventricular size. Notably, in patients with juvenile gangliosidosis, macrocephaly and elevated intracranial pressure were absent and total brain volume decreased with time compared to controls (P=0.004). CONCLUSIONS: The disease course of infantile versus juvenile gangliosidoses is clearly distinguished by the rate of brain disease progression as characterized by qMRI. Assessments by qMRI represent a robust non-invasive method for monitoring CNS changes in the clinical course of gangliosidoses and is ideally suited to monitor effects of novel CNS-directed therapies in future clinical trials.

Observational Prospective Natural History of Patients with Sanfilippo Syndrome Type B.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the natural course of disease progression in patients with Sanfilippo syndrome type B (mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB), identify potential end points for future therapy trials, and characterize biomarkers related to the disease. STUDY DESIGN: A prospective, multicenter study was conducted. Baseline, 6-month, and 12-month assessments included neurodevelopmental status (Bayley Scales of Infant Development, Third edition), adaptive status (Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition), volumetric brain magnetic resonance imaging, cerebrospinal fluid heparan sulfate, and urine glycosaminoglycan (GAG) measurements. RESULTS: Nineteen patients aged 1.6-31.7 years were enrolled. Over 12 months, cognition, adaptive behavior, and cortical gray matter volume (GMV) declined in most patients. For patients diagnosed at <6 years, although there was no overall mean change over 12 months, there were 10%-48%, 3%-66%, and 1%-14% decreases in cognitive development quotient score, Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Second Edition development quotient score, and cortical GMV in 8/12, 9/11, and 10/11 patients, respectively. Mean urine GAG and cerebrospinal fluid heparan sulfate levels were stable, but patients diagnosed at <6 years (n = 14) had higher levels than those ≥6 years at diagnosis (n = 4), which was likely associated with age as they also were generally younger. CONCLUSIONS: Cognition, adaptive behavior, and cortical GMV measures sensitively tracked deterioration in patients with mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIB aged ≤8.6 years. Biomarkers may have prognostic value, but their sensitivity to disease progression requires further investigation. These findings should help evaluate enzyme replacement and gene therapy agents for this rare, devastating, neurodegenerative disease. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01509768.

Quantitative neuroimaging in mucopolysaccharidoses clinical trials.

The mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) disorders are rare lysosomal storage disorders caused by mutations in lysosomal enzymes involved in glycosaminoglycan (GAG) degradation. The resulting intracellular accumulation of GAGs leads to widespread tissue and organ dysfunction. In addition to somatic signs and symptoms, patients with MPS can present with neurological manifestations such as cognitive decline, behavioral problems (e.g. hyperactivity and aggressiveness), sleep disturbances, and/or epilepsy. These are associated with significant abnormalities of the central nervous system (CNS), including white and gray matter lesions, brain atrophy, ventriculomegaly, and spinal cord compression. In order to effectively manage and develop therapies for MPS that target neurological disease, it is important to visualize and quantify these CNS abnormalities. This review describes optimal approaches for conducting magnetic resonance imaging assessments in multi-center clinical studies, and summarizes current knowledge from neuroimaging studies in MPS disorders. The content of the review is based on presentations and discussions on these topics that were held during a meeting of an international group of experts.

Intrathecal enzyme replacement therapy reverses cognitive decline in mucopolysaccharidosis type I.

Mucopolysaccharidosis type I (MPS I) is an inherited lysosomal storage disease that seriously affects the brain. Severity of neurocognitive symptoms in attenuated MPS subtype (MPS IA) broadly varies partially, due to restricted permeability of blood-brain barrier (BBB) which limits treatment effects of intravenously applied α-L-iduronidase (rhIDU) enzyme. Intrathecal (IT) rhIDU application as a possible solution to circumvent BBB improved brain outcomes in canine models; therefore, our study quantifies effects of IT rhIDU on brain structure and function in an MPS IA patient with previous progressive cognitive decline. Neuropsychological testing and MRIs were performed twice prior (baseline, at 1 year) and twice after initiating IT rhIDU (at 2nd and 3rd years). The difference between pre- and post-treatment means was evaluated as a percentage of the change. Neurocognitive performance improved particularly in memory tests and resulted in improved school performance after IT rhIDU treatment. White matter (WM) integrity improved together with an increase of WM and corpus callosum volumes. Hippocampal and gray matter volume decreased which may either parallel reduction of glycosaminoglycan storage or reflect typical longitudinal brain changes in early adulthood. In conclusion, our outcomes suggest neurological benefits of IT rhIDU compared to the intravenous administration on brain structure and function in a single MPS IA patient.© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Unique white matter microstructural patterns in ADHD presentations-a diffusion tensor imaging study.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder predominantly inattentive (ADHD-PI) and combined (ADHD-C) presentations are likely distinct disorders that differ neuroanatomically, neurochemically, and neuropsychologically. However, to date, little is known about specific white matter (WM) regions differentiating ADHD presentations. This study examined differences in WM microstructure using diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) data from 20 ADHD-PI, 18 ADHD-C, and 27 typically developed children. Voxel-wise analysis of DTI measurements in major fiber bundles was carried out using tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS). Clusters showing diffusivity abnormalities were used as regions of interest for regression analysis between fractional anisotropy (FA) and neuropsychological outcomes. Compared to neurotypicals, ADHD-PI children showed higher FA in the anterior thalamic radiations (ATR), bilateral inferior longitudinal fasciculus (ILF), and in the left corticospinal tract (CST). In contrast, the ADHD-C group exhibited higher FA in the bilateral cingulum bundle (CB). In the ADHD-PI group, differences in FA in the left ILF and ATR were accompanied by axial diffusivity (AD) abnormalities. In addition, the ADHD-PI group exhibited atypical mean diffusivity in the forceps minor (FMi) and left ATR and AD differences in right CB compared to healthy subjects. Direct comparison between ADHD presentations demonstrated radial diffusivity differences in FMi. WM clusters with FA irregularities in ADHD were associated with neurobehavioral performance across groups. In conclusion, differences in WM microstructure in ADHD presentations strengthen the theory that ADHD-PI and ADHD-C are two distinct disorders. Regions with WM irregularity seen in both ADHD presentations might serve as predictors of executive and behavioral functioning across groups. Hum Brain Mapp 37:3323-3336, 2016. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

A Prospective Natural History Study of Mucopolysaccharidosis Type IIIA.

OBJECTIVES: To characterize the clinical course of mucopolysaccharidosis type IIIA (MPS IIIA), and identify potential endpoints for future treatment trials. STUDY DESIGN: Children with a confirmed diagnosis of MPS IIIA, functioning above a developmental age of 1 year, were followed for up to 2 years. Cognitive status and brain atrophy were assessed by standardized tests and volumetric magnetic resonance imaging, respectively. Liver and spleen volumes and cerebrospinal fluid and urine biomarker levels were measured. RESULTS: Twenty-five children, from 1.1 to 18.4 years old, were enrolled, and 24 followed for at least 12 months. 19 exhibited a rapidly progressing (RP) form of MPS IIIA, and 5, a more slowly progressing form. Children with RP plateaued in development by 30 months, followed by rapid regression after 40-50 months. In patients with RP, cognitive developmental quotients showed consistent steep declines associated with progressive cortical gray matter atrophy. Children with slowly progressing had a similar but more prolonged course. Liver and spleen volumes were approximately double normal size, and cerebrospinal fluid and urine heparin sulfate levels were elevated and relatively constant over time. CONCLUSION: Developmental quotient and cortical gray matter volume are sensitive markers of disease progression in MPS IIIA, and may have utility as clinical endpoints in treatment trials. For optimal outcomes, treatment may need to be instituted in children before the onset of steep cognitive decline and brain atrophy. TRIAL REGISTRATION: ClinicalTrials.gov: NCT01047306.

Cognitive, medical, and neuroimaging characteristics of attenuated mucopolysaccharidosis type II.

UNLABELLED: The phenotype of attenuated mucopolysaccharidosis type II (MPS II), also called Hunter syndrome, has not been previously studied in systematic manner. In contrast to the "severe" phenotype, the "attenuated" phenotype does not present with behavioral or cognitive impairment; however, the presence of mild behavior and cognitive impairment that might impact long-term functional outcomes is unknown. Previously, significant MRI abnormalities have been found in MPS II. Recent evidence suggests white matter abnormalities in many MPS disorders. METHODS: As the initial cross-sectional analysis of a longitudinal study, we studied the association of brain volumes and somatic disease burden with neuropsychological outcomes, including measures of intelligence, memory, and attention in 20 patients with attenuated MPS II with a mean age of 15.8. MRI volumes were compared to 55 normal controls. RESULTS: While IQ and memory were average, measures of attention were one standard deviation below the average range. Corpus callosum volumes were significantly different from age-matched controls, differing by 22%. Normal age-related volume increases in white matter were not seen in MPS II patients as they were in controls. Somatic disease burden and white matter and corpus callosum volumes were significantly associated with attention deficits. Neither age at evaluation nor age at starting treatment predicted attention outcomes. CONCLUSIONS: Despite average intelligence, attention is compromised in attenuated MPS II. Results confirm an important role of corpus callosum and cortical white matter abnormality in MPS II as well as the somatic disease burden in contributing to attention difficulties. Awareness by the patient and caregivers with appropriate management and symptomatic support will benefit the attenuated MPS II patient.

Quantifying behaviors of children with Sanfilippo syndrome: the Sanfilippo Behavior Rating Scale.

The Sanfilippo Behavior Rating Scale (SBRS), a 68 item questionnaire, has been developed to assess the behavioral phenotype of children with Sanfilippo syndrome and its progression over time. Fifteen scales rate orality, movement/activity, attention/self-control, emotional function including anger and fear, and social interaction. Items within scales intercorrelate; measures of internal consistency are adequate. Twelve scales are grouped into 4 abnormality clusters: Movement, Lack of fear, Social/emotional and Executive Dysfunction. A Loess age-trajectory analysis showed that Lack of Fear, Social/Emotional and Executive Dysfunction increased steadily with age; Orality and Mood/Anger/Aggression leveled off. Movement peaked around 6years, then declined as children's excessive/purposeless actions stopped. Compared with standard scales, SBRS Movement was appropriately associated with the Vineland Motor scale; SBRS Lack of Fear had significant associations with the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule (ADOS), indicating a symptom overlap between Sanfilippo syndrome and autism. This suggests that reduced fearfulness may be the most salient/sensitive SBRS marker of disease progression. Volumetric MRI showed that increased Lack of Fear was significantly associated with reduced amygdala volume, consistent with our hypothesis that the behavior seen in Sanfilippo syndrome is a variant of Klüver-Bucy syndrome. Hippocampal volume loss had twice the effect on Social-Emotional Dysfunction as amygdala loss, consistent with a hippocampal role in attachment and social emotions. In conclusion, the SBRS assesses the Sanfilippo behavioral phenotype; it can measure behavior change that accompanies disease progression and/or results from treatment.

Neurocognition across the spectrum of mucopolysaccharidosis type I: Age, severity, and treatment.

OBJECTIVES: Precise characterization of cognitive outcomes and factors that contribute to cognitive variability will enable better understanding of disease progression and treatment effects in mucopolysaccharidosis type I (MPS I). We examined the effects on cognition of phenotype, genotype, age at evaluation and first treatment, and somatic disease burden. METHODS: Sixty patients with severe MPS IH (Hurler syndrome treated with hematopoietic cell transplant and 29 with attenuated MPS I treated with enzyme replacement therapy), were studied with IQ measures, medical history, genotypes. Sixty-seven patients had volumetric MRI. Subjects were grouped by age and phenotype and MRI and compared to 96 normal controls. RESULTS: Prior to hematopoietic cell transplant, MPS IH patients were all cognitively average, but post-transplant, 59% were below average, but stable. Genotype and age at HCT were associated with cognitive ability. In attenuated MPS I, 40% were below average with genotype and somatic disease burden predicting their cognitive ability. White matter volumes were associated with IQ for controls, but not for MPS I. Gray matter volumes were positively associated with IQ in controls and attenuated MPS I patients, but negatively associated in MPS IH. CONCLUSIONS: Cognitive impairment, a major difficulty for many MPS I patients, is associated with genotype, age at treatment and somatic disease burden. IQ association with white matter differed from controls. Many attenuated MPS patients have significant physical and/or cognitive problems and receive insufficient support services. Results provide direction for future clinical trials and better disease management.

Quantitative neuroimaging in mucolipidosis type IV.

Mucolipidosis type IV (MLIV) is an autosomal recessive disorder resulting from mutations in the MCOLN1 gene. This gene encodes the endosomal/lysosomal transient receptor potential channel protein mucolipin-1 (TRPML1). Affected patients suffer from neurodevelopmental abnormalities and progressive retinal dystrophy. In a prospective natural history study we hypothesized the presence of an additional slow cerebral neurodegenerative process. We have recruited 5 patients, tested their neurodevelopmental status, and measured cerebral regional volumes and white matter integrity using MRI yearly. Over a period of up to 3 years, MLIV patients remained neurologically stable. There was a trend for increased cortical and subcortical gray matter volumes and increased ventricular size, while white matter and cerebellar volumes decreased. Mean diffusivity (MD) was increased and fractional anisotropy (FA) values were below normal in all analyzed brain regions. There was a positive correlation between motor scores of the Vineland Scale and the FA values in the corticospinal tract (corr coef 0.39), and a negative correlation with the MD values (corr coef -0.50) in the same brain region. We conclude from these initial findings that deficiency in mucolipin-1 affects the entire brain but that there might be a selective regional cerebral neurodegenerative process in MLIV. In addition, these data suggest that diffusion-weighted imaging might be a good biomarker for following patients with MLIV. Therefore, our findings may be helpful for designing future clinical trials.