Exposure of intestinal explants to NX, but not to DON, enriches the secretome in mitochondrial proteins.

NX is a type A trichothecene produced by Fusarium graminearum with limited information on its toxicity. NX is structurally similar to deoxynivalenol (DON), only differing by the lacking keto group at C8. Because of the structural similarity of the two toxins as well as their potential co-occurrence in food and feed, it is of interest to determine the toxicity of this new compound. In this study, we compared the protein composition of the extracellular media of pig intestinal explants (secretome) exposed to 10 µM of DON or NX for 4 h compared with controls. The combination of two complementary quantitative proteomic approaches (a gel-based and a gel-free approach) identified 18 and 23 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) for DON and NX, respectively, compared to controls. Functional analysis suggested that, whereas DON toxicity was associated with decreased cell viability and cell destruction, NX toxicity was associated with an enrichment of mitochondrial proteins in the secretome. The presence of these proteins may be associated with the already known ability of NX to induce an intestinal inflammation. Overall, our results indicated that DON- and NX-induced changes in the extracellular proteome of intestinal explants are different. The increased leakage/secretion of mitochondrial proteins by NX may be a feature of NX toxicity.

The food contaminant, deoxynivalenol, modulates the Thelper/Treg balance and increases inflammatory bowel diseases.

The incidence of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) is increasing in both Western and developing countries. IBD are multifactorial disorders involving complex interactions between genetic, immune, and environmental factors such as exposure to food contaminants. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is the most prevalent mycotoxin that contaminates staple food and induces intestinal breakdown and inflammatory response. To delineate the role of DON oral exposure in IBD, we used a Dextran sulfate sodium (DSS) colitis model in rats fed with a DON-contaminated diet or a control diet for 4 weeks. Colitis was induced in the 4th week by increasing concentrations of DSS in the drinking water (0, 2, 3 or 5%). DON exacerbated body weight loss and accelerated the appearance of symptoms in animals treated with DSS. DON increased morphological damage, pro-inflammatory markers (myeloperoxidase, CXCL-1 and IL-1ß) and immune cell responses. In lamina propria of the rat with colitis, DON increased adaptive and innate immune responses after anti-CD3/28 or LPS stimulation, respectively. In the spleen, DON increased IFNγ secretion and reduced Treg populations. Interestingly, De-epoxy-DON (DOM-1) a detoxified form of DON did not have any consequences on colitis. These results suggest that DON is a risk factor in the onset of IBD.

Intestinal toxicity of deoxynivalenol is limited by Lactobacillus rhamnosus RC007 in pig jejunum explants.

Probiotics have been explored to stimulate gut health in weaned pigs, when they started to consume solid diet where mycotoxins could be present. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus RC007 on the intestinal toxicity of deoxynivalenol (DON) in an ex vivo model. Jejunal explants, obtained from 5-week-old crossbred castrated male piglets, were kept as control, exposed for 3 h to 10 µM DON, incubated for 4 h with 109 CFU/mL L. rhamnosus, or pre-incubated 1 h with 109 L. rhamnosus and exposed to DON. Histological lesions were observed, para- and transcellular intestinal permeability was measured in Ussing chambers. The expression levels of mRNA encoding six inflammatory cytokines (CCL20, IL-10, IL-1ß, TNFα, IL-8 and IL-22) were determined by RT-PCR. The expressions of the phosphorylated MAP kinases p42/p44 and p38 were assessed by immunoblotting. Exposure to DON induced histological changes, significantly increased the expression of CCL20, IL-1ß, TNFα, IL-8, IL-22 and IL-10, increased the intestinal paracellular permeability and activated MAP kinases. Incubation with L. rhamnosus alone did not have any significant effect. By contrast, the pre-incubation with L. rhamnosus reduced all the effects of DON: the histological alterations, the pro-inflammatory response, the paracellular permeability and the phosphorylation of MAP kinases. Of note, L. rhamnosus did not adsorb DON and only slightly degrade the toxin. In conclusion, L. rhamnosus RC007 is a promising probiotic which, included as feed additive, can decrease the intestinal toxicity of DON.

Intestinal toxicity of the new type A trichothecenes, NX and 3ANX.

NX and its acetylated form 3ANX are two new type A trichothecenes produced by Fusarium graminearum whose toxicity is poorly documented. The aim of this study was to obtain a general view of the intestinal toxicity of these toxins. Deoxynivalenol (DON), which differs from NX by the keto group at C8, served as a benchmark. The viability of human intestinal Caco-2 cells decreased after 24 h of exposure to 3 µM NX (-21.4%), 3 µM DON (-20.2%) or 10 µM 3ANX (-17.4%). Histological observations of porcine jejunal explants exposed for 4 h to 10 µM of the different toxins showed interstitial edema and cellular debris. Explants exposed to NX also displayed cell vacuolization, a broken epithelial barrier and high loss of villi. Whole transcriptome profiling revealed that NX, DON and 3ANX modulated 369, 146 and 55 genes, respectively. Functional analyses indicated that the three toxins regulate the same gene networks and signaling pathways mainly; cell proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and growth, and particularly immune and pro-inflammatory responses. Greater transcriptional impacts were observed with NX than with DON. In conclusion, our data revealed that the three toxins have similar impacts on the intestine but of different magnitude: NX > DON ≫ 3ANX. NX and 3ANX should consequently be included in overall risk analysis linked to the presence of trichothecenes in our diet.

Comparative sensitivity of proliferative and differentiated intestinal epithelial cells to the food contaminant, deoxynivalenol.

The intestinal epithelium is a functional and physical barrier formed by a cell monolayer that constantly differentiates from a stem cell in the crypt. This is the first target for food contaminants, especially mycotoxins. Deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most prevalent mycotoxins. This study compared the effects of DON (0-100 µM) on proliferative and differentiated intestinal epithelial cells. Three cell viability assays (LDH release, ATP content and neutral red uptake) indicated that proliferative Caco-2 cells are more sensitive to DON than differentiated ones. The establishment of transepithelial electrical resistance (TEER), as a read out of the differentiation process, was delayed in proliferative cells after exposure to 1 µM DON. Transcriptome analysis of proliferative and differentiated exposure to 0-3 µM DON for 24 h revealed 4862 differentially expressed genes (DEG) and indicated an effect of both the differentiation status and the DON treatment. KEGG enrichment analysis indicated involvement of metabolism, ECM receptors and tight junctions in the differentiation process, while ribosome biogenesis, mRNA surveillance, and the MAPK pathway were involved in the response to DON. The number of differentially expressed genes and the amplitude of the effect were higher in proliferative cells exposed to DON than that in differentiated cells. In conclusion, our study shows that proliferative cells are more susceptible than differentiated ones to DON and that the mycotoxin delays the differentiation process.

Dietary Exposure to the Food Contaminant Deoxynivalenol Triggers Colonic Breakdown by Activating the Mitochondrial and the Death Receptor Pathways.

INTRODUCTION: The food contamination by mycotoxins is of increasing public health concerns. Deoxynivalenol (DON), a mycotoxin contaminating cereals, has been associated with the exacerbation of inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), thereby raising the question of its role in the development of IBD. Moreover, the effect of DON on the colon is poorly described. METHODS AND RESULTS: Wistar rats exposed (1-4 weeks) to low doses of DON (2 or 9 mg kg-1 feed) show microscopic alterations of colonic tissue (dilated lymphatic vessels, luminal debris, and cubic and flattened enterocytes). Ingestion of DON also alters colonic functions by increasing paracellular permeability while reducing the expression of the tight junction proteins and increased apoptosis in colonic tissue. Pro-apoptotic factors Bax/Bak, cytochrome C, and caspase 9 are upregulated, whereas expression of anti-apoptotic protein Bcl2 tends to decrease for the mitochondrial pathway. An increased expression of FasR and caspase-8 is observed for the extrinsic pathway. An increase in the pro-inflammatory markers TNFα, IL-17, and myeloperoxidase is also observed. CONCLUSION: These results indicate that the dietary exposure to low levels of DON in food targets the colon inducing a health-threatening breakdown of the colonic barrier, highlighting oral exposure to DON as a potential risk factor in triggering IBD.

Effects of Fusarium metabolites beauvericin and enniatins alone or in mixture with deoxynivalenol on weaning piglets.

The impact of the Fusarium-derived metabolites beauvericin, enniatin B and B1 (EB) alone or in combination with deoxynivalenol (DON) was investigated in 28-29 days old weaning piglets over a time period of 14 days. The co-application of EB and DON (EB + DON) led to a significant decrease in the weight gain of the animals. Liver enzyme activities in plasma were significantly decreased at day 14 in piglets receiving the EB + DON-containing diet compared to piglets receiving the control diet. All mycotoxin-contaminated diets led to moderate to severe histological lesions in the jejunum, the liver and lymph nodes. Shotgun metagenomics revealed a significant effect of EB-application on the gut microbiota. Our results provide novel insights into the harmful impact of emerging mycotoxins alone or with DON on the performance, gut health and immunological parameters in pigs.

Statistical Integration of 'Omics Data Increases Biological Knowledge Extracted from Metabolomics Data: Application to Intestinal Exposure to the Mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol.

The effects of low doses of toxicants are often subtle and information extracted from metabolomic data alone may not always be sufficient. As end products of enzymatic reactions, metabolites represent the final phenotypic expression of an organism and can also reflect gene expression changes caused by this exposure. Therefore, the integration of metabolomic and transcriptomic data could improve the extracted biological knowledge on these toxicants induced disruptions. In the present study, we applied statistical integration tools to metabolomic and transcriptomic data obtained from jejunal explants of pigs exposed to the food contaminant, deoxynivalenol (DON). Canonical correlation analysis (CCA) and self-organizing map (SOM) were compared for the identification of correlated transcriptomic and metabolomic features, and O2-PLS was used to model the relationship between exposure and selected features. The integration of both 'omics data increased the number of discriminant metabolites discovered (39) by about 10 times compared to the analysis of the metabolomic dataset alone (3). Besides the disturbance of energy metabolism previously reported, assessing correlations between both functional levels revealed several other types of damage linked to the intestinal exposure to DON, including the alteration of protein synthesis, oxidative stress, and inflammasome activation. This confirms the added value of integration to enrich the biological knowledge extracted from metabolomics.

Acute Exposure to Zearalenone Disturbs Intestinal Homeostasis by Modulating the Wnt/ß-Catenin Signaling Pathway.

The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEN), which frequently contaminates cereal-based human food and animal feed, is known to have an estrogenic effect. The biological response associated with exposure to ZEN has rarely been reported in organs other than the reproductive system. In the intestine, several studies suggested that ZEN might stimulate molecular changes related to the activation of early carcinogenesis, but the molecular mechanisms behind these events are not yet known. In this study, we investigated gene expression and changes in protein abundance induced by acute exposure to ZEN in the jejunum of castrated male pigs using an explant model. Our results indicate that ZEN induces the accumulation of ER but not ER, modulates Wnt/ß-catenin and TGF- signaling pathways, and induces molecular changes linked with energy sensing and the antimicrobial activity without inducing inflammation. Our results confirm that the intestine is a target for ZEN, inducing changes that promote cellular proliferation and could contribute to the onset of intestinal pathologies.

Co-occurrence of DON and Emerging Mycotoxins in Worldwide Finished Pig Feed and Their Combined Toxicity in Intestinal Cells.

Food and feed can be naturally contaminated by several mycotoxins, and concern about the hazard of exposure to mycotoxin mixtures is increasing. In this study, more than 800 metabolites were analyzed in 524 finished pig feed samples collected worldwide. Eighty-eight percent of the samples were co-contaminated with deoxynivalenol (DON) and other regulated/emerging mycotoxins. The Top 60 emerging/regulated mycotoxins co-occurring with DON in pig feed shows that 48%, 13%, 8% and 12% are produced by Fusarium, Aspergillus, Penicillium and Alternaria species, respectively. Then, the individual and combined toxicity of DON and the 10 most prevalent emerging mycotoxins (brevianamide F, cyclo-(L-Pro-L-Tyr), tryptophol, enniatins A1, B, B1, emodin, aurofusarin, beauvericin and apicidin) was measured at three ratios corresponding to pig feed contamination. Toxicity was assessed by measuring the viability of intestinal porcine epithelial cells, IPEC-1, at 48-h. BRV-F, Cyclo and TRPT did not alter cell viability. The other metabolites were ranked in the following order of toxicity: apicidin > enniatin A1 > DON > beauvericin > enniatin B > enniatin B1 > emodin > aurofusarin. In most of the mixtures, combined toxicity was similar to the toxicity of DON alone. In terms of pig health, these results demonstrate that the co-occurrence of emerging mycotoxins that we tested with DON does not exacerbate toxicity.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae Boulardii Reduces the Deoxynivalenol-Induced Alteration of the Intestinal Transcriptome.

Type B trichothecene mycotoxin deoxynivalenol (DON) is one of the most frequently occurring food contaminants. By inducing trans-activation of a number of pro-inflammatory cytokines and increasing the stability of their mRNA, trichothecene can impair intestinal health. Several yeast products, especially Saccharomyces cerevisiae, have the potential for improving the enteric health of piglets, but little is known about the mechanisms by which the administration of yeast counteracts the DON-induced intestinal alterations. Using a pig jejunum explant model, a whole-transcriptome analysis was performed to decipher the early response of the small intestine to the deleterious effects of DON after administration of S. cerevisiae boulardii strain CNCM I-1079. Compared to the control condition, no differentially expressed gene (DE) was observed after treatment by yeast only. By contrast, 3619 probes-corresponding to 2771 genes-were differentially expressed following exposure to DON, and 32 signaling pathways were identified from the IPA software functional analysis of the set of DE genes. When the intestinal explants were treated with S. cerevisiae boulardii prior to DON exposure, the number of DE genes decreased by half (1718 probes corresponding to 1384 genes). Prototypical inflammation signaling pathways triggered by DON, including NF-κB and p38 MAPK, were reversed, although the yeast demonstrated limited efficacy toward some other pathways. S. cerevisiae boulardii also restored the lipid metabolism signaling pathway, and reversed the down-regulation of the antioxidant action of vitamin C signaling pathway. The latter effect could reduce the burden of DON-induced oxidative stress. Altogether, the results show that S. cerevisiae boulardii reduces the DON-induced alteration of intestinal transcriptome, and point to new mechanisms for the healing of tissue injury by yeast.

Intestinal toxicity of the type B trichothecene mycotoxin fusarenon-X: whole transcriptome profiling reveals new signaling pathways.

The few data available on fusarenon-X (FX) do not support the derivation of health-based guidance values, although preliminary results suggest higher toxicity than other regulated trichothecenes. Using histo-morphological analysis and whole transcriptome profiling, this study was designed to obtain a global view of the intestinal alterations induced by FX. Deoxynivalenol (DON) served as a benchmark. FX induced more severe histological alterations than DON. Inflammation was the hallmark of the molecular toxicity of both mycotoxins. The benchmark doses for the up-regulation of key inflammatory genes by FX were 4- to 45-fold higher than the previously reported values for DON. The transcriptome analysis revealed that both mycotoxins down-regulated the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) and liver X receptor - retinoid X receptor (LXR-RXR) signaling pathways that control lipid metabolism. Interestingly, several pathways, including VDR/RXR activation, ephrin receptor signaling, and GNRH signaling, were specific to FX and thus discriminated the transcriptomic fingerprints of the two mycotoxins. These results demonstrate that FX induces more potent intestinal inflammation than DON. Moreover, although the mechanisms of toxicity of both mycotoxins are similar in many ways, this study emphasize specific pathways targeted by each mycotoxin, highlighting the need for specific mechanism-based risk assessments of Fusarium mycotoxins.