Pathways from school to work: A sequence analysis of non-engaged youth.

INTRODUCTION: Research on heterogeneous pathways in school-to-work transitions (SWT), particularly longitudinal research, has been limited, as have empirical studies examining effective interventions for facilitating multiple SWT pathways among non-engaged youth (NEY), who are generally at risk of being not in education, employment, or training (NEET). METHODS: To develop a typology of SWT pathways, we conducted sequence analysis with longitudinal data from a sample of 630 NEY aged 14-29 (M = 19.78; 63.65% males) in Hong Kong during a 22-month period beginning in September 2020. We also performed multinomial logistic regressions to assess the impact of career and life development (CLD) interventions on SWT outcomes. RESULTS: Our analysis yielded a fivefold typology of SWT pathways: the Employment/Entrepreneurship cluster (31.27%), the Vocational Education and Training cluster (13.49%), the Generic Education cluster (16.83%), the Serious Leisure Development cluster (15.24%), and the long-term NEET cluster (23.17%). NEY in the intervention group receiving CLD services, inspired by the expanded notion of work (ENOW) and youth development and intervention framework (YDIF), demonstrated significantly higher likelihoods of being in the Employment/Entrepreneurship (OR = 34.5, 95% CI [10.53, 105.08]), Generic Education (OR = 3.74, 95% CI [1.81, 7.74]), Vocational Education and Training (OR = 1.55, 95% CI [1.05, 6.26]), and Serious Leisure Development (OR = 1.77, 95% CI [1.04, 4.46]) clusters than the long-term NEET cluster. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings highlight the dynamic, heterogeneous nature of NEY's CLD journeys, including that CLD interventions based on ENOW-YDIF have had a beneficial effect on NEY's multiple SWT pathways.

Understanding the effects of personal factors and situational factors for adolescent cyberbullying perpetration: The roles of internal states and parental mediation.

INTRODUCTION: The risk and protective factors of cyberbullying perpetration have been widely investigated. Less attention is paid to explore the effects of personal and situational factors, internal states, and external states in an integrated framework. This study aims to fill this void by developing an integrated framework to investigate the effects of power imbalance, the online disinhibition effect, internal states, and parental mediation on cyberbullying among Chinese adolescents. METHODS: Multistage cluster random sampling was employed with 1103 adolescents (Mage = 15.3, 52.5% girls) who responded to the questionnaire. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was conducted. RESULTS: Proficiency in technology use was directly related to cyberbullying. Social status among peers was found to be not only directly related to cyberbullying but also to operate through low self-control to predict cyberbullying. The online disinhibition effect did not directly correlate to cyberbullying but operated through moral disengagement and low self-control to predict cyberbullying. Notably, the results showed that physical power was neither directly correlated to cyberbullying nor aligned with moral disengagement or low self-control to predict cyberbullying. The multiple-group comparison analysis revealed that parental mediation moderated the effects of the online disinhibition effect on cyberbullying. However, this study found that parental mediation had no buffering effects when examining the relationships between physical power, social status, technology use, and cyberbullying. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that cyberbullying prevention should consider the effects of both internal states and external factors. The study has provided theoretical and practical implications for understanding and tackling the widespread problem of cyberbullying among adolescents.

Agentic personality as mediator of social capital on developmental outcomes in the transition to adulthood: Evidence from Shanghai, China.

Drawing upon a sample of 1153 young people in Shanghai, China, this study investigates how agentic personality mediates between social capital embedded in a range of social contexts (family, friendship, association, and linking connection) and developmental outcomes during the transition to adulthood. The results of a structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis provide a good fit for the sample as a whole. The overall findings support the hypotheses that a higher level of agentic personality, including resilience, self-efficacy, and self-esteem, is associated with higher levels of developmental outcomes. Agentic personality also mediates the effects of family, friendship, associational, and linking social capital on developmental outcomes. Family social capital is predictive of university students' identity achievement and academic achievement, but not of their mental health. Linking social capital is only predictive of identity achievement. Unexpectedly, friendship social capital and associational social capital are predictive of a lower level of academic achievement and mental health, respectively, despite their positive influences on all three developmental outcomes through their significant effects on agentic personality. The study provides empirical support for the importance of social capital in promoting young people's transition to adulthood. Implications for theory, practice, and policy are also discussed.

Economic disadvantage and transitional outcomes: a study of young people from low-income families in Hong Kong.

This study draws on data from focus groups involving 50 young people from low-income families in Hong Kong to investigate their school-to-work experiences. In line with the ecological-developmental perspective, our results show that contextual influences, including lower levels of parental involvement and lack of opportunities for further education or skill development, constrain both the formulation and pursuit of educational and career goals. In contrast, service use and supportive interactions with parents and non-family adults were found to help young people find a career direction and foster more adaptive transition. Furthermore, our results indicate a striking difference in intrapersonal agency and coping styles between youths who were attending further education or engaged in jobs with career advancement opportunities and those who were not. We discuss the implications of our findings, both for future research and for policy development to enhance the school-to-work transition of economically disadvantaged young people.

Career and life development intervention for non-engaged youth: Evaluating the Hong Kong Benchmarks (Community) Pilot Program.

In our study, aimed at examining the effectiveness and impact of the Hong Kong Benchmarks (Community) Pilot Program, a career and life development (CLD) intervention program targeting non-engaged youth (NEY) in Hong Kong, we employed a pretest-posttest quasi-experimental design to compare changes in career-related competencies between a pilot group (N = 289) and a comparison group (N = 160). We also conducted five focus group interviews with the leaders of nongovernmental organizations, social workers, NEY, parents, and employers to explore the program's impacts on the CLD service provisions. Our quantitative results indicate that the piloting group showed greater improvement in two career-related competencies-youth career development competency and career and life development hope-than the comparison group. Meanwhile, our qualitative results suggest both the benefits and difficulties experienced by stakeholders in the program. The findings thus provide preliminary evidence of the Hong Kong Benchmarks (Community) Pilot Program's positive impacts on NEY and other important stakeholders. The implications of expanding the existing program and theorizing the community-based benchmark approach are also discussed.

Social exclusion and neighborhood support: a case study of empty-nest elderly in urban Shanghai.

The phenomenon of empty-nest elderly (ENE) has become a significant social issue in China. In this research on ENEs in urban Shanghai, a coastal city in China, case studies were undertaken through in-depth semistructured interviews to examine the social exclusion risks ENEs may face and the influence of neighborhood support on such risks. The results show 5 aspects of social exclusion ENEs are experiencing. Moreover, the neighborhood has the potential for providing different forms of support to reduce social exclusion risks. The research and service implications of our findings for promoting the holistic well-being of ENEs in China are discussed.

Cyberbullying Perpetration Among Chinese Adolescents: The Role of Power Imbalance, Fun-seeking Tendency, and Attitude Toward Cyberbullying.

The imbalance of power affords individuals to bully others. However, limited studies have explored the specific aspects of power imbalance in predicting cyberbullying. Furthermore, a fun-seeking tendency as a motive for cyberbullying and attitudes toward cyberbullying as cognitive stimuli have rarely been studied in relation to mediating the associations between power imbalance and cyberbullying in an integrated framework. This study aims to narrow these research gaps. Multistage cluster random sampling was employed to recruit a total of 1103 adolescents (52.5% females) ranging in age from 12 to 18 years. Structural equation modeling analyses revealed that proficiency in technology use is not only directly and positively associated with cyberbullying but also indirectly associated with cyberbullying via fun-seeking tendency. Although social status among peers had no direct effect on cyberbullying, the indirect effects of social status among peers on cyberbullying via the fun-seeking tendency and attitude toward cyberbullying were significant. Notably, physical power was neither directly associated with cyberbullying nor through the fun-seeking tendency or attitude toward cyberbullying in associating with cyberbullying. Implications of these findings for developing effective interventions are discussed.

Perceived Discrimination at School and Developmental Outcomes among Bai Adolescents: The Mediating Roles of Self-Esteem and Ethnic Identity.

Although discrimination is widely acknowledged to impair developmental outcomes among ethnic minority adolescents, literature differentiating discrimination based on personal characteristics and group membership is lacking, especially in Chinese contexts, and the mechanisms of those relationships remain unclear. In response, the study presented here examined whether self-esteem mediates the relationship between perceived academic discrimination and developmental outcomes among such ethnic minority adolescents, and whether ethnic identity mediates the relationship between perceived ethnic discrimination and developmental outcomes. Multistage cluster random sampling performed in Dali and Kunming, China, yielded a sample of 813 Bai adolescents whose data was analysed in structural equation modelling. The results indicate that perceived academic discrimination had a direct negative effect on adolescents' mental health, while perceived ethnic discrimination had direct negative effects on their behavioural adjustment and social competence. Perceived academic discrimination also indirectly affected adolescents' behavioural adjustment, mental health, and social competence via self-esteem, whereas perceived ethnic discrimination indirectly affected their behavioural adjustment and social competence via ethnic identity. These findings deepen current understandings of how perceived discrimination, self-esteem, and ethnic identity affect the developmental outcomes of ethnic minority adolescents and provide practical recommendations for policymakers and social workers to promote those outcomes in China.

Effects of structural-economic and socio-relational exclusion on well-being of Chinese migrant children.

Social exclusion is a widely accepted risk factor for child well-being, but relatively little is known about its dynamics and effect on multiple well-being domains. This study aims to extend prior research by examining the influencing mechanisms of structural-economic and socio-relational exclusion on the physical, psychological, behavioural and educational well-being of Chinese migrant children. Multi-stage cluster random sampling is used to recruit a sample of migrant children (N = 484; Mage  = 11.65 years; 52.9% girls) in Kunming, China, and structural equation modelling is used for data analysis. Results indicate that a high level of structural-economic exclusion predicts a high level of socio-relational exclusion, which, in turn, leads to low levels of physical, psychological, behavioural and educational well-being among migrant children. This study not only contributes to the understanding of the dynamic effects of social exclusion but also provides practical implications for social policy and interventions to reduce social exclusion and improve the well-being of Chinese migrant children.

Validating the evaluation capacity scale among practitioners in non-governmental organizations.

The growing emphasis on demonstrating the effectiveness of social services through evaluation has heightened demand for nongovernmental organization (NGO) practitioners to enhance evaluation capacity. However, a lack of validated instruments in the NGO context has hampered efforts to assess NGO practitioners' current evaluation capacity and understand how capacity-building activities could be tailored to meet NGO practitioners' actual needs and enhance their evaluation capacity. Hence, this study aims to develop the Evaluation Capacity Scale (ECS), a self-reporting instrument of NGO practitioners' capacity to conduct an effective evaluation of their service programs. Validation data was derived from 439 NGO practitioners who attended the Jockey Club MEL Institute Project in Hong Kong, China. Exploratory factor analysis of the ECS revealed three factors-evaluation mindset, evaluation implementation, and evaluation communication-and confirmatory factor analysis further validated this three-factor structure. Moreover, MANCOVA analysis demonstrated the ECS's predictive validity. Overall, the ECS demonstrated satisfactory convergent validity, high internal consistency reliability, and predictive validity, and its factor structure was supported in subgroups based on gender, age, and level of education. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.

Development and Validation of the Career and Life Development Hope (CLDH) Scale among Non-Engaged Youth in Hong Kong.

Increasing career and life development hope (CLDH) is critical for the career and life pursuits of non-engaged youths (NEY) who face various disadvantages in the school-to-work transition, especially considering current challenging labor market conditions and the impacts of the pandemic. Nevertheless, research that explores the assessment of CLDH among NEY is scarce. To address this gap, this study aimed to develop and validate a CLDH measurement instrument. A total of 1998 NEY aged 13-29 years in Hong Kong participated in our study. Exploratory factor analysis of the 20-item CLDH scale suggested a two-factor structure-career and life development pathways (CLDP) and career and life development agency (CLDA)-which accounted for 63.08% of the total variance. The confirmatory factor analysis results show a good model fit (CFI = 0.934, TLI = 0.926, RMSEA = 0.060, 90% CI [0.055, 0.065], SRMR = 0.042) and all the items significantly represented the corresponding sub-constructs. The results also demonstrate a satisfactory internal consistency for all subscales and the full scale (0.89-0.95). Sub-group consistency across subsamples categorized by gender, age, and years of residence in Hong Kong was indicated. Correlations between the CLDH scale and subscales with other career-related and social well-being outcomes (i.e., youth career development competency, career adaptability, civic engagement, social contribution, and social integration) showed good concurrent validity. Our results support that the CLDH scale is a valid and reliable tool for measuring NEY's hope for career and life development in the Hong Kong context. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are also discussed.

Domestic Generative Acts and Life Satisfaction among Supplementary Grandparent Caregivers in Urban China: Mediated by Social Support and Moderated by Hukou Status.

Urban China is witnessing a growth of migrant grandparents apart from the prevalent local grandparent caregiving. However, the health consequences and influencing factors of grandparent caregiving remain largely unknown among migrant and local grandparent caregivers. This study examined informal and formal social support's mediation roles between domestic generative acts and life satisfaction, as well as investigating Hukou's (household registration system) moderation effect. Our sample compromised 1013 grandparent caregivers (Migrant = 508, Local = 505) from 12 kindergartens with a multistage clustered random sampling from Eastern China. Migrant grandparent caregivers had significant lower informal social support (M = 4.000, L = 4.355, p < 0.001), formal social support (M = 1.787, L = 2.111, p < 0.001), and life satisfaction (M = 3.323, L = 3.574, p < 0.001) than local ones. Structural equation modeling results indicated that domestic generative acts positively associated with life satisfaction (b = 0.085, p < 0.05), informal (b = 0.223, p < 0.001) and formal social support (b = 0.080, p < 0.05); informal (b = 0.379, p < 0.001) and formal social support (b = 0.138, p < 0.001) positively associated with life satisfaction. In addition, both informal (ß = 0.084, CI [0.039, 0.101], p < 0.001) and formal social support (ß = 0.011, CI [0.001, 0.018], p < 0.05) mediated the relationship between domestic generative acts and life satisfaction. Furthermore, Hukou status moderated the indirect path from domestic generative acts to life satisfaction via informal social support (p < 0.01), but not formal social support (p > 0.05). Migrant grandparent caregivers, with limited formal social support resources, were found to be more dependent on informal social support than locals. The findings revealed social support and wellbeing disparities among migrant and local grandparent caregivers in urban China. Theoretical contributions and practical implications are also discussed.

Validation of the Generative Acts Scale-Chinese Version (GAS-C) among Middle-Aged and Older Adults as Grandparents in Mainland China.

The current study examined the psychometric properties of the 20-item Generative Acts Scale-Chinese version (GAS-C) among middle-aged and older adults as grandparents in mainland China. A total of 1013 grandparents (mean age = 58.32 years; 71.9% female) of children from 12 kindergartens were recruited using multistage cluster random sampling. A four-factor pattern of domestic, agentic, communal, and civic generative acts were identified by exploratory factor analysis and further verified by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA). Subsequently, multigroup CFA was performed to test the measurement invariance across gender, age group and hukou status at the configural, metric, and scalar levels. The Cronbach's alpha value of the total (0.923) and subscales (range from 0.897 to 0.953) was satisfactory, indicating high internal consistency. Additionally, the significant gender differences in the domestic (male = 3.565, female = 3.718, p < 0.05), communal (male = 2.786, female = 2.591, p < 0.01), and civic subscales (male = 2.112, female = 1.864, p < 0.001) and the significant correlations between the GAS-C total scale and subscales with caregiving intensity (r = 0.433, p < 0.01), positive affect (r = 0.397, p < 0.01) and life satisfaction (r = 0.328, p < 0.01), supported concurrent validity. Overall, this study addressed the knowledge gap by validating a reliable and valid instrument to measure grandparents' generative acts in mainland China, contributing to generativity studies cross-culturally in research and practice.

Development and Validation of the Youth Career Development Competency Scale: A Study Based on Hong Kong Youth.

The challenging labor market conditions concomitant with economic globalization and advanced technology have made youth career development competency (YCDC)-young people's ability to navigate transitions through education into productive and meaningful employment-especially important. The present study aims to develop a holistic instrument to measure YCDC in Hong Kong, which has rarely been investigated in past studies. The sample consisted of 682 youths aged 15-29 years (387 male, mean age = 19.5 years) in Hong Kong. Exploratory factor analysis of the 17-item YCDC scale resulted in four competence factors-engagement, self-understanding, career and pathway exploration, and planning and career management-which accounted for 78.95% of the total variance. The final confirmatory factor analysis results indicated good model fit (CFI = 0.96, TLI = 0.95, RMSEA = 0.06, 90% CI (0.05, 0.07), SRMR = 0.03) and good factor loadings (0.78-0.91). Moreover, the results demonstrated a satisfactory internal consistency of subscales (0.89-0.93). Subgroup consistency across subsamples categorized by gender, age, and years of residence in Hong Kong was also demonstrated. In addition, correlations between the YCDC scale and subscales with other career-related and psychosocial outcomes (i.e., career outcome expectancy, career adaptability, civic engagement, social contribution, and social integration) showed good concurrent validity. The results indicated that the YCDC scale is a valid and reliable tool for measuring career development competence among youth in the Hong Kong context. Its development sheds light on how career professionals can holistically assess young people's navigation competence during their school-to-work transitions.

Mediating Effects of Emotional Support Reception and Provision on the Relationship between Group Interaction and Psychological Well-Being: A Study of Young Patients.

While it is well-established that mutual aid groups are effective in the psychological rehabilitation of vulnerable individuals, few studies have thoroughly investigated the dynamic mechanism of how psychological well-being improves through mutual aid groups of young patients with chronic health conditions. In connection with several existing theories (i.e., the helper therapy principle, equity theory, the norm of reciprocity, and the concept of communal relationships), this study aims to: (1) evaluate whether emotional support exchanges (i.e., emotional support reception and provision) mediate the relationship between group interaction and psychological well-being; and (2) compare three potential underlying mechanisms-the mediating role of emotional support provision, equitable reciprocity (i.e., a balance of receiving and providing emotional support, where no party over-benefits or under-benefits), and sequential reciprocity (i.e., repaying the helper or a third party in the future after receiving help)-through a path analysis model. A stratified random sampling procedure with chronic health conditions as the stratifying criterion was used to recruit 391 individuals aged 12-45 years from mutual aid groups in Hong Kong, who completed both the baseline and follow-up surveys over a 12-month interval. The results of the path model revealed significant mediating roles of emotional support provision and sequential reciprocity, not equitable reciprocity. The present study offers theoretical and practical implications for promoting the psychological well-being of young patients with chronic health conditions.

Time Effects of Supportive Interaction and Facilitator Input Variety on Treatment Adherence of Young People with Chronic Health Conditions: A Dynamic Mechanism in Mutual Aid Groups.

This study aims to examine the mechanism of how supportive interaction and facilitator input variety in mutual aid groups impact treatment adherence of young people with chronic health conditions, with consideration of time effects, which have been rarely studied in the existing literature. A stratified random sample of 391 individuals aged 12-45 years with chronic health conditions were recruited from mutual aid groups in Hong Kong and completed both the baseline and 12-month follow-up surveys. The results of the structural equation modeling indicated that supportive interaction and facilitator input variety positively predicted treatment adherence in a delayed condition, whereas members' treatment adherence in the baseline survey had reversed effects on members' supportive interaction in the follow-up survey. The findings of this study shed light on the dynamic mechanism of the mutual aid groups and provide important implications to promote better rehabilitation outcomes of young people with chronic health conditions.

Measuring Development of Self-Help Organizations for Patients with Chronic Health Conditions in Hong Kong: Development and Validation of the Self-Help Organization Development Scale (SHODS).

Self-help organizations (SHOs) enable patients with chronic health conditions (PCHCs) to overcome common difficulties through the exchange of knowledge and mutual assistance, which serves as the basis for promoting the self-reliance and well-being of PCHCs. Nevertheless, practical challenges persist because little is known about what and how to evaluate for the developmental outcomes of SHOs. To address this knowledge gap, the present study seeks to develop and validate the Self-Help Organization Development Scale (SHODS). A total of 232 core members from 54 SHOs in Hong Kong participated in our study. The SHODS structure was validated by confirmatory factor analysis. This analysis derived five factors: citizen support, business support, member recovery and mutual aid, organizational health, and functional sustainability. The five-factor structure demonstrated stability across various types of SHOs, as validated by the subgroup analysis based on two criteria: duration of SHO establishment and organization affiliation. Good concurrent validity was supported by significant correlations between the SHODS factors and organizational variables, including staff supervision, staff understanding, networking, advocating, and educating the public and patients. The SHODS also showed excellent internal consistency. In conclusion, the SHODS is a psychometrically sound instrument for measuring the developmental outcomes of SHOs.

The effects of program characteristics and psychological engagement on service-learning outcomes: a study of university students in Hong Kong.

This study examines the ways in which program characteristics (i.e., involvement with service users, agency support, and class experience) and psychological engagement interact in university students to affect service-learning outcomes in such areas as personal development and civic commitment. The basic premise is that these two sets of variables may have differing effects on the outcomes. To test this premise, the study employed survey data collected from 113 university students participating in a service-learning program in Hong Kong. The results support the hypothesis that involvement with service users and psychological engagement are the strongest predictors of student outcomes. On the other hand, no support is found for the possibility that agency support and class experience might affect the outcomes. Implications of the findings for further research and future development of service-learning programs are discussed.

Building mutual aid among young people with emotional and behavioral problems: the experiences of Hong Kong social workers.

Among young people with emotional and behavioral problems (EBP), mutual aid is likely to be valuable in their rehabilitation and deserving of social work support. The benefits of mutual aid stem from the possibility that it prolongs the effective contribution of social work service. Given its potential benefits, it is imperative to clarify the ways in which social work service maximizes these benefits. Such clarification is necessary both to verify untested theories about social work inputs to mutual aid and because the research literature on mutual aid among young people is particularly lacking. Based on data from three focus groups involving social workers in Hong Kong, this study seeks to demonstrate the relevance of theoretically based group work strategies in the mutual aid and rehabilitation of EBP youth. These strategies include identifying commonalities and setting prioritiese, balancing support with demand, optimizing input between social workers and members, and connecting members with relevant others in the community. The research and service implications of the findings of this study for promoting efficient social work input that contributes to the long-term development of young people are discussed.

The effects of service participation, friendship networks, and family support on developmental outcomes: a study of young people from low-income families in Hong Kong.

This research investigates the factors conducive to the success of young people growing up in low-income families. Many studies carried out locally and overseas focus on the risks and difficulties experienced by these young people; however, little attempt has been made to examine the factors that help them change their lives from failure, poverty, and social exclusion. Based on a quantitative survey of 405 young people recruited from schools and integrated youth service centers in Hong Kong, this research identifies a range of indicators of, and necessary conditions for, the positive development of young people with economic disadvantage. It also evaluates the way in which the functions of service participation, friendship networks, and various family factors support them to thrive in different areas. The study helps fill the gap of the existing literature and draws implications for policy and practice to address the needs of these youths. Future directions of research are also discussed.