Post hospital admission blood lactate measurements are associated with mortality but not neurologic morbidity in children with cerebral malaria.

BACKGROUND: In children with cerebral malaria (CM) admission blood lactate has previously guided intravenous fluid therapy and been validated as a prognostic biomarker associated with death. The usefulness of post-admission measurements of blood lactate in children with CM is less clear. The strength of association between blood lactate and neurological sequelae in CM survivors, as well as the optimal duration of post-admission measurements of blood lactate to identify children at higher risk of adverse outcomes is unknown. METHODS: A retrospective cohort study of 1674 Malawian children with CM hospitalized from 2000 to 2018 who had blood lactate measurements every 6 h for the first 24 h after admission was performed. The strength of association between admission lactate or values measured at any time point in the first 24 h post-admission and outcomes (mortality and neurological morbidity in survivors) was estimated. The duration of time after admission that lactate remained a valid prognostic biomarker was assessed. RESULTS: When lactate is analysed as a continuous variable, children with CM who have higher values at admission have a 1.05-fold higher odds (95% CI 0.99-1.11) of death compared to those with lower lactate values. Children with higher blood lactate at 6 h have 1.16-fold higher odds (95% CI 1.09-1.23) of death, compared to those with lower values. If lactate levels are dichotomized into hyperlactataemic (lactate > 5.0 mmol/L) or not, the strength of association between admission lactate and mortality increases (OR = 2.49, 95% CI 1.47-4.22). Blood lactate levels obtained after 18 h post-admission are not associated with outcomes. Similarly, the change in lactate concentrations through time during the first 24 h of hospital admission is not associated with outcomes. Blood lactate during hospitalization is not associated with adverse neurologic outcomes in CM survivors. CONCLUSIONS: In children with CM, blood lactate is associated with death but not neurologic morbidity in survivors. To comprehensively estimate prognosis, blood lactate in children with CM should be assessed at admission and for 18 h afterwards.

Noninvasive Neuromonitoring Modalities in Children Part I: Pupillometry, Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, and Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography.

BACKGROUND: Noninvasive neuromonitoring in critically ill children includes multiple modalities that all intend to improve our understanding of acute and ongoing brain injury. METHODS: In this article, we review basic methods and devices, applications in clinical care and research, and explore potential future directions for three noninvasive neuromonitoring modalities in the pediatric intensive care unit: automated pupillometry, near-infrared spectroscopy, and transcranial Doppler ultrasonography. RESULTS: All three technologies are noninvasive, portable, and easily repeatable to allow for serial measurements and trending of data over time. However, a paucity of high-quality data supporting the clinical utility of any of these technologies in critically ill children is currently a major limitation to their widespread application in the pediatric intensive care unit. CONCLUSIONS: Future prospective multicenter work addressing major knowledge gaps is necessary to advance the field of pediatric noninvasive neuromonitoring.

Catheter-associated deep vein thrombosis in children with severe traumatic brain injury: A single-center experience.

BACKGROUND: This study was performed to describe the single-center experience of deep vein thrombosis (DVT) in children with severe traumatic brain injury (sTBI) who were mechanically ventilated with a central line, and to identify potentially modifiable risk factors. It was hypothesized that children with DVT would have a longer duration of central venous line (CVL) and a higher use of hypertonic saline (HTS) compared to those without DVT. PROCEDURE/METHODS: This was a retrospective study of children (0-18 years) with sTBI, who were intubated, had a CVL, and a minimum intensive care unit (ICU) stay of 3 days. Children were analyzed by the presence or absence of DVT. HTS use was evaluated using milliliter per kilogram (ml/kg) of 3% equivalents. Univariable and multivariable logistic regression models were used to determine which factors were associated with DVT. RESULTS: Seventy-seven children met inclusion criteria, 23 (29.9%) had a DVT detected in an extremity. On univariable analysis, children with DVT identified in an extremity had prolonged CVL use (14 vs. 8.5 days, p = .021) and longer duration of mechanical ventilation (15 vs. 10 days, p = .013). HTS 3% equivalent ml/kg was not different between groups. On multivariable analysis, mechanical ventilation duration was associated with DVT detection in an extremity, whereas neither CVL duration nor HTS use had an association. CONCLUSIONS: There was a high incidence of extremity DVT detected in children with sTBI who received invasive mechanical ventilation and had a CVL. HTS administration was not associated with DVT detection in an extremity.

Organ Dysfunction Among Children Meeting Brain Death Criteria: Implications for Organ Donation.

OBJECTIVES: Over 70% of pediatric organ donors are declared deceased by brain death (BD) criteria. Patients with these devastating neurologic injuries often have accompanying multiple organ dysfunction. This study was performed to characterize organ dysfunction in children who met BD criteria and were able to donate their organs compared with those deemed medically ineligible. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study. SETTING: PICU at a quaternary care children's hospital. PATIENTS: Patients with International Classification of Diseases , 9th Edition codes corresponding to BD between 2012 and 2018 were included. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Demographics, comorbidities, Pediatric Risk of Mortality (PRISM)-III, and injury mechanisms were derived from the medical record. Organ dysfunction was quantified by evaluating peak daily organ-specific variables. Fifty-eight patients, from newborn to 22 years old, were included with a median PRISM-III of 34 (interquartile range [IQR], 26-36), and all met criteria for multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS). Thirty-four of 58 BD children (59%) donated at least one organ. Of the donors (not mutually exclusive proportions), 10 of 34 donated lungs, with a peak oxygenation index of 11 (IQR, 8-23); 24 of 34 donated their heart (with peak Vasoactive Inotrope Score 23 [IQR, 18-33]); 31 of 34 donated kidneys, of whom 16 of 31 (52%) had evidence of acute kidney injury; and 28 of 34 patients donated their liver, with peak alanine transferase (ALT) of 104 U/L (IQR, 44-268 U/L) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) of 165 U/L (IQR, 94-434 U/L). Organ dysfunction was similar between heart and lung donors and respective medically ineligible nondonors. Those deemed medically ineligible to donate their liver had higher peak ALT 1,518 U/L (IQR, 986-1,748 U/L) ( p = 0.01) and AST 2,200 U/L (IQR, 1,453-2,405 U/L) ( p = 0.01) compared with liver donors. CONCLUSIONS: In our single-center experience, all children with BD had MODS, yet more than one-half were still able to donate organs. Future research should further evaluate transplant outcomes of dysfunctional organs prior to standardizing donation eligibility criteria.

Mechanisms of Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound phenotypes in paediatric cerebral malaria remain elusive.

BACKGROUND: Cerebral malaria (CM) results in significant paediatric death and neurodisability in sub-Saharan Africa. Several different alterations to typical Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound (TCD) flow velocities and waveforms in CM have been described, but mechanistic contributors to these abnormalities are unknown. If identified, targeted, TCD-guided adjunctive therapy in CM may improve outcomes. METHODS: This was a prospective, observational study of children 6 months to 12 years with CM in Blantyre, Malawi recruited between January 2018 and June 2021. Medical history, physical examination, laboratory analysis, electroencephalogram, and magnetic resonance imaging were undertaken on presentation. Admission TCD results determined phenotypic grouping following a priori definitions. Evaluation of the relationship between haemodynamic, metabolic, or intracranial perturbations that lead to these observed phenotypes in other diseases was undertaken. Neurological outcomes at hospital discharge were evaluated using the Paediatric Cerebral Performance Categorization (PCPC) score. RESULTS: One hundred seventy-four patients were enrolled. Seven (4%) had a normal TCD examination, 57 (33%) met criteria for hyperaemia, 50 (29%) for low flow, 14 (8%) for microvascular obstruction, 11 (6%) for vasospasm, and 35 (20%) for isolated posterior circulation high flow. A lower cardiac index (CI) and higher systemic vascular resistive index (SVRI) were present in those with low flow than other groups (p < 0.003), though these values are normal for age (CI 4.4 [3.7,5] l/min/m2, SVRI 1552 [1197,1961] dscm-5m2). Other parameters were largely not significantly different between phenotypes. Overall, 118 children (68%) had a good neurological outcome. Twenty-three (13%) died, and 33 (19%) had neurological deficits. Outcomes were best for participants with hyperaemia and isolated posterior high flow (PCPC 1-2 in 77 and 89% respectively). Participants with low flow had the least likelihood of a good outcome (PCPC 1-2 in 42%) (p < 0.001). Cerebral autoregulation was significantly better in children with good outcome (transient hyperemic response ratio (THRR) 1.12 [1.04,1.2]) compared to a poor outcome (THRR 1.05 [0.98,1.02], p = 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Common pathophysiological mechanisms leading to TCD phenotypes in non-malarial illness are not causative in children with CM. Alternative mechanistic contributors, including mechanical factors of the cerebrovasculature and biologically active regulators of vascular tone should be explored.

Peripheral IV Administration of Hypertonic Saline: Single-Center Retrospective PICU Study.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the frequency and characteristics of complications of peripherally administered hypertonic saline (HTS) through assessment of infiltration and extravasation. DESIGN: Retrospective cross-sectional study. SETTING: Freestanding tertiary care pediatric hospital. PATIENTS: Children who received HTS through a peripheral IV catheter (PIVC). INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We conducted a single-center retrospective review from January 2012 to 2019. A total of 526 patients with 1,020 unique administrations of HTS through a PIVC met inclusion criteria. The primary endpoint was PIVC failure due to infiltration or extravasation. The indication for the administration of HTS infusion was collected. Catheter data was captured, including the setting of catheter placement, anatomical location on the patient, gauge size, length of time from catheter insertion to HTS infusion, in situ duration of catheter lifespan, and removal rationale. The administration data for HTS was reviewed and included volume of administration, bolus versus continuous infusion, infusion rate, infusion duration, and vesicant medications administered through the PIVC. There were 843 bolus infusions of HTS and 172 continuous infusions. Of the bolus administrations, there were eight infiltrations (0.9%). The continuous infusion group had 13 infiltrations (7.6%). There were no extravasations in either group, and no patients required medical therapy or intervention by the wound care or plastic surgery teams. There was no significant morbidity attributed to HTS administration in either group. CONCLUSIONS: HTS administered through a PIVC infrequently infiltrates in critically ill pediatric patients. The infiltration rate was low when HTS is administered as a bolus but higher when given as a continuous infusion. However, no patient suffered an extravasation injury or long-term morbidity from any infiltration.

Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound During Critical Illness in Children: Survey of Practices in Pediatric Neurocritical Care Centers.

OBJECTIVES: The scope of transcranial Doppler ultrasound in the practice of pediatric neurocritical care is unknown. We have surveyed pediatric neurocritical care centers on their use of transcranial Doppler and analyzed clinical management practices. DESIGN: Electronic-mail recruitment with survey of expert centers using web-based questionnaire. SETTING: Survey of 43 hospitals (31 United States, 12 international) belonging to the Pediatric Neurocritical Care Research Group. PATIENTS: None. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: A 67% (29/43) hospital-response rate. Of these centers, 27 reported using transcranial Doppler in the PICU; two hospitals opted out due to lack of transcranial Doppler availability/use. The most common diagnoses for using transcranial Doppler in clinical care were intracranial/subarachnoid hemorrhage (20 hospitals), arterial ischemic stroke (14 hospitals), and traumatic brain injury (10 hospitals). Clinical studies were carried out and interpreted by credentialed individuals in 93% (25/27) and 78% (21/27) of the centers, respectively. A written protocol for performance of transcranial Doppler in the PICU was available in 30% (8/27 hospitals); of these, two of eight hospitals routinely performed correlation studies to validate results. In 74% of the centers (20/27), transcranial Doppler results were used to guide clinical care: that is, when to obtain a neuroimaging study (18 hospitals); how to manipulate cerebral perfusion pressure with fluids/vasopressors (13 hospitals); and whether to perform a surgical intervention (six hospitals). Research studies were also commonly performed for a range of diagnoses. CONCLUSIONS: At least 27 pediatric neurocritical care centers use transcranial Doppler during clinical care. In the majority of centers, studies are performed and interpreted by credentialed personnel, and findings are used to guide clinical management. Further studies are needed to standardize these practices.

Transcranial Doppler ultrasound findings in children with moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury following abusive head trauma.

PURPOSE: Abusive head trauma (AHT) is the leading cause of fatal head injuries for children under 2 years. The objective was to evaluate, using transcranial Doppler ultrasound (TCD), whether children with AHT have a similar neurovascular response to injury compared with children without AHT. METHODS: Retrospective sub-analysis of previously prospectively acquired data in a pediatric intensive care unit in a level 1 trauma hospital. TCD was performed daily until hospital day 8, discharge, or death. Neurologic outcome was assessed using the Glasgow Outcome Scale Extended (GOS-E Peds) at 1 month from initial injury. RESULTS: Sixty-nine children aged 1 day to 17 years with moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury were enrolled. Fifteen children suffered AHT and 54 had no suspicion for AHT. Fifteen children with AHT underwent 80 serial TCD examinations; 54 children without AHT underwent 308 exams. After standardization for age and gender normative values, there was no statistically significant difference in mean cerebral blood flow velocity of the middle cerebral artery (VMCA) between children with and without AHT. There was no difference in the incidence of extreme cerebral blood flow velocity (CBFV, greater or less than 2 standard deviations from normative value) between groups. Within the AHT group, there were no statistically significant differences in VMCA between children with a favorable (GOS-E Peds 1-4) versus unfavorable neurologic outcome (GOS-E Peds 5-8). CONCLUSION: Children with AHT have no significant differences in VMCA or percentage of extreme CBFV in the middle cerebral artery compared to with those without AHT.

Non-invasive estimation of cerebral perfusion pressure using transcranial Doppler ultrasonography in children with severe traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To identify if cerebral perfusion pressure (CPP) can be non-invasively estimated by either of two methods calculated using transcranial Doppler ultrasound (TCD) parameters. DESIGN: Retrospective review of previously prospectively gathered data. SETTING: Pediatric intensive care unit in a tertiary care referral hospital. PATIENTS: Twenty-three children with severe traumatic brain injury (TBI) and invasive intracranial pressure (ICP) monitoring in place. INTERVENTIONS: TCD evaluation of the middle cerebral arteries was performed daily. CPP at the time of the TCD examination was recorded. For method 1, estimated cerebral perfusion pressure (CPPe) was calculated as: CPPe = MAP × (diastolic flow (Vd)/mean flow (Vm)) + 14. For method 2, critical closing pressure (CrCP) was identified as the intercept point on the x-axis of the linear regression line of blood pressure and flow velocity parameters. CrCP/CPPe was then calculated as MAP-CrCP. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: One hundred eight paired measurements were available. Using patient averaged data, correlation between CPP and CPPe was significant (r = 0.78, p = < 0.001). However, on Bland-Altman plots, bias was 3.7 mmHg with 95% limits of agreement of - 17 to + 25 for CPPe. Using patient averaged data, correlation between CPP and CrCP/CPPe was significant (r = 0.59, p = < 0.001), but again bias was high at 11 mmHg with wide 95% limits of agreement of - 15 to + 38 mmHg. CONCLUSIONS: CPPe and CrCP/CPPe do not have clinical value to estimate the absolute CPP in pediatric patients with TBI.

Cerebrovascular Physiology During Pediatric Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation: A Multicenter Study Using Transcranial Doppler Ultrasonography.

OBJECTIVES: To explore changes to expected, age-related transcranial Doppler ultrasound variables during pediatric extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. DESIGN: Prospective, observational, multicenter study. SETTING: Tertiary care PICUs. PATIENTS: Children 1 day to 18 years old requiring veno arterial extracorporeal membrane oxygenation. METHODS: Participants underwent daily transcranial Doppler ultrasound measurement of bilateral middle cerebral artery flow velocities. Acute neurologic injury was diagnosed if seizures, cerebral hemorrhage, or diffuse cerebral ischemia was detected. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Fifty-two children were enrolled and analyzed. In the 44 children without acute neurologic injury, there was a significant reduction in systolic flow velocity and mean flow velocity compared with predicted values over time (F [8, 434] = 60.44; p ≤ 0.0001, and F [8, 434] = 17.61; p ≤ 0.0001). Middle cerebral artery systolic flow velocity was lower than predicted on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation days 1-5, and mean flow velocity was lower than predicted on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation days 1-3. In the six infants less than 90 days old suffering diffuse cerebral ischemia, middle cerebral artery systolic flow velocity, mean flow velocity, and diastolic flow velocity from extracorporeal membrane oxygenation days 1-9 were not significantly different when compared with children of similar age in the cohort that did not suffer acute neurologic injury (systolic flow velocity F [8, 52] = 0.6659; p = 0.07 and diastolic flow velocity F [8, 52] = 1.4; p = 0.21 and mean flow velocity F [8, 52] = 1.93; p = 0.07). Pulsatility index was higher in these infants over time than children of similar age in the cohort on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation that did not suffer acute neurologic injury (F [8, 52] = 3.1; p = 0.006). No patient in the study experienced cerebral hemorrhage. CONCLUSIONS: Flow velocities in the middle cerebral arteries of children requiring extracorporeal membrane oxygenation are significantly lower than published normative values for critically ill, mechanically ventilated, sedated children. Significant differences in measured systolic flow velocity, diastolic flow velocity, and mean flow velocity were not identified in children suffering ischemic injury compared with those who did not. However, increased pulsatility index may be a marker for ischemic injury in young infants on extracorporeal membrane oxygenation.

Factors Associated With Poor Outcome in Pediatric Near-Hanging Injuries.

BACKGROUND: Hanging injury is the most common method of suicide among children 5 to 11 years of age and near-hangings commonly occur. Adult studies in near-hanging injury have shown that need for cardiopulmonary resuscitation, initial blood gas, and poor mental status are associated with poor prognosis. The literature for similar factors in children is lacking. OBJECTIVES: This retrospective, single-center study was performed to identify the clinical factors associated with neurologic outcome in children after near-hanging. METHODS: Inclusion criteria included <18 years of age and a diagnosis of near-hanging or strangulation. All physician documentation was reviewed, and incidences of respiratory complications, seizure, and multiorgan failure were noted. Pediatric cerebral performance category score was based on information at discharge and was defined as favorable (score of 1-4) or unfavorable (score of 5-6). Comparisons were made between outcome groups and suspected clinical factors. RESULTS: The median age was 11.5 years with a median initial Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score of 10. Of all patients, 25% had a prehospital cardiac arrest, and 51% were admitted to the intensive care unit. Patients with unfavorable outcomes had a lower initial pH (6.9 vs. 7.3) and initial GCS score (3T vs. 14). Patients with an unfavorable outcome had significantly higher rates of intensive care unit admission, respiratory complications, anoxic brain injury, and multiorgan failure. No patient who presented with an initial GCS score of 3T and prehospital cardiac arrest had a favorable neurologic outcome. CONCLUSIONS: This is the largest single-center study of children with near-hanging injury. An initial GCS score of 3T and prehospital cardiac arrest was uniformly associated with poor neurologic outcome.

Emergency Neurologic Life Support: Meningitis and Encephalitis.

Bacterial meningitis and viral encephalitis, particularly herpes simplex encephalitis, are severe neurological infections that, if not treated promptly and effectively, lead to poor neurological outcome or death. Because of the value of early recognition and treatment, meningitis and encephalitis was chosen as an Emergency Neurological Life Support protocol. This protocol provides a practical approach to recognition and urgent treatment of bacterial meningitis and encephalitis. Appropriate imaging, spinal fluid analysis, and early empiric treatment are discussed. Though uncommon in its full form, the typical clinical triad of headache, fever, and neck stiffness should alert the clinical practitioner to the possibility of a central nervous system infection. Early attention to the airway and maintaining normotension are crucial steps in the treatment of these patients, as is rapid treatment with anti-infectives and, in some cases, corticosteroids.

Prevalence of Early Posttraumatic Seizures in Children With Moderate to Severe Traumatic Brain Injury Despite Levetiracetam Prophylaxis.

OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the prevalence of early seizures after levetiracetam prophylaxis in children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury. DESIGN: Prospective observational study. SETTING: Level 1 pediatric trauma center. PATIENTS: We enrolled 34 patients between the ages of 0-18 years with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury admitted to the PICU at a level 1 trauma center who received levetiracetam for early posttraumatic seizure prophylaxis. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Primary outcome was the prevalence of early posttraumatic seizures that were defined as clinical seizures within 7 days of injury. In 6 of 34 patients (17%), clinical seizures developed despite levetiracetam prophylaxis. An additional two patients had nonconvulsive seizures. This prevalence is similar to that reported in the literature in this patient population who do not receive seizure prophylaxis (20-53%) and is higher than that in patients who receive phenytoin prophylaxis (2-15%). Patients with early posttraumatic seizures were younger (median age, 4 mo) (p < 0.001) and more likely to have suffered from abusive head trauma (p < 0.0004). CONCLUSIONS: Early clinical posttraumatic seizures occurred frequently in children with moderate to severe traumatic brain injury despite seizure prophylaxis with levetiracetam. Younger children and those with abusive head trauma were at increased risk of seizures. Further studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy of levetiracetam before it is routinely used for seizure prophylaxis in these children, particularly in young children and those who have suffered from abusive head trauma.

The epidemiology of vasospasm in children with moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury.

OBJECTIVE: To gain a description of the prevalence and time course of vasospasm in children suffering moderate-to-severe traumatic brain injury. DESIGN: A prospective, observational study was performed. Children with a diagnosis of traumatic brain injury, a Glasgow Coma Score less than or equal to 12, and abnormal head imaging were enrolled. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound was performed to identify and follow vasospasm. Diagnostic criteria included flow velocity elevation more than or equal to 2 sd above age and gender normal values for the middle cerebral and basilar arteries. Additional criteria required for vasospasm diagnosis in the middle cerebral artery was a ratio of flow in the middle cerebral artery to extracranial internal carotid artery more than or equal to 3. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: Sixty-nine children were included. The prevalence of middle cerebral artery vasospasm in children with moderate traumatic brain injury (Glasgow Coma Score, 9-12) was 8.5% and was 33.5% in those with severe traumatic brain injury (Glasgow Coma Score, ≤ 8). The prevalence of basilar artery vasospasm in children with moderate traumatic brain injury was 3% and with severe traumatic brain injury was 21%. Mean time to onset of vasospasm was 4 days (± 2 d) in the middle cerebral arteries and 5 days (± 2.5 d) in the basilar artery. Mean duration of vasospasm in the middle cerebral artery was 2 days (± 2 d) and 1.5 days (± 1 d) in the basilar artery. Children in whom vasospasm developed were more likely to have been involved in motor vehicle accidents, had higher Injury Severity Scores, had fever at admission, and had lower Glasgow Coma Score scores. Good neurologic outcome (Glasgow Outcome Score Extended Pediatric version of ≥ 4) at 1 month from injury was seen in 76% of those with moderate traumatic brain injury without vasospasm and in 40% of those with vasospasm. In those with severe traumatic brain injury, good neurologic outcome was seen in 29% of those children without vasospasm and in 15% of those with vasospasm. CONCLUSIONS: Vasospasm occurs in a sizeable number of children with moderate and severe traumatic brain injury. Children in whom vasospasm developed were more likely to have been involved in a motor vehicle accident, had higher Injury Severity Scores, had fever at admission, and had lower Glasgow Coma scores than in those whom vasospasm did not develop. Based on these findings, we recommend aggressive screening for posttraumatic vasospasm in these patients. Future studies should establish the relationship between vasospasm and long-term functional outcomes and should also evaluate potential preventative or therapeutic options for vasospasm in these children.

Transcranial Doppler Sonography in Pediatric Neurocritical Care: A Review of Clinical Applications and Case Illustrations in the Pediatric Intensive Care Unit.

Transcranial Doppler sonography is a noninvasive, real-time physiologic monitor that can detect altered cerebral hemodynamics during catastrophic brain injury. Recent data suggest that transcranial Doppler sonography may provide important information about cerebrovascular hemodynamics in children with traumatic brain injury, intracranial hypertension, vasospasm, stroke, cerebrovascular disorders, central nervous system infections, and brain death. Information derived from transcranial Doppler sonography in these disorders may elucidate underlying pathophysiologic characteristics, predict outcomes, monitor responses to treatment, and prompt a change in management. We review emerging applications for transcranial Doppler sonography in the pediatric intensive care unit with case illustrations from our own experience.

Emergency Neurologic Life Support: Meningitis and Encephalitis.

Bacterial meningitis and viral encephalitis, particularly herpes simplex encephalitis, are severe neurological infections that, if not treated promptly and effectively, lead to poor neurological outcome or death. Because treatment is more effective if given early, the topic of meningitis and encephalitis was chosen as an Emergency Neurological Life Support protocol. This protocol provides a practical approach to recognition and urgent treatment of bacterial meningitis and encephalitis. Appropriate imaging, spinal fluid analysis, and early empiric treatment is discussed. Though uncommon in its full form, the typical clinical triad of headache, fever, and neck stiffness should alert the clinical practitioner to the possibility of a central nervous system infection. Early attention to the airway and maintaining normotension is crucial in treatment of these patients, as is rapid treatment with anti-infectives and, in some cases, corticosteroids.

Hemodialysis for near-fatal sodium phosphate toxicity in a child receiving sodium phosphate enemas.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to demonstrate the importance of considering hemodialysis as a treatment option in the management of sodium phosphate toxicity. METHODS: This is a case report of a 4-year-old who presented to the emergency department with shock, decreased mental status, seizures, and tetany due to sodium phosphate toxicity from sodium phosphate enemas. RESULTS: Traditional management of hyperphosphatemia with aggressive hydration and diuretics was insufficient to reverse the hemodynamic and neurological abnormalities in this child. This is the first report of the use of hemodialysis in a child without preexisting renal failure for the successful management of near-fatal sodium phosphate toxicity. CONCLUSIONS: Hemodialysis can safely be used as an adjunctive therapy in sodium phosphate toxicity to rapidly reduce serum phosphate levels and increase serum calcium levels in children not responding to conventional management.

Revising the Interpretation of Transcranial Doppler Ultrasound Examinations in Pediatric Cerebral Malaria.

Cerebral malaria (CM) is a devastating disease globally. Transcranial Doppler ultrasound (TCD) has identified five different phenotypes of deranged cerebrovascular hemodynamics in children with CM, each associated with different outcomes. For TCD to be used as a point of care neurodiagnostic and neuromonitoring tool in CM patients, proper interpretation of examinations is paramount. Comparison of measured cerebral blood flow velocities (CBFVs) to age-matched normative values is needed to interpret any pediatric TCD study. Until recently, normative values in African children did not exist, so previous work reported the frequency of CM phenotypes by classifying studies compared with normative values of European children. Now that normative TCD values in healthy African children have been established, we performed this retrospective analysis of prospectively collected data to determine phenotype frequency and associated outcomes in children with CM by comparing CBFV values to these contemporary controls.

Optic nerve sheath diameter and its association with brain swelling in pediatric cerebral malaria: a retrospective study.

Introduction: Mortality in pediatric cerebral malaria (CM) in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) is associated with brain swelling on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI); however, MRI is unavailable in most LMICs. Optic nerve sheath diameter (ONSD) measurement is an inexpensive method of detecting increased intracranial pressure compared with the invasive opening pressure (OP). Our primary objective was to determine if increased ONSD correlated with brain swelling on MRI in pediatric CM. Our secondary objective was to determine if increased ONSD correlated with increased OP and/or poor neurological outcome in pediatric CM. We hypothesized that increased ONSD would correlate with brain swelling on MRI and increased OP and that ONSD would be higher in survivors with sequelae and non-survivors. Methods: We performed a retrospective chart review of children aged 0-12 years in Blantyre, Malawi, from 2013 to 2022 with CM as defined by the World Health Organization. Brain swelling on admission MRI was characterized by brain volume scores (BVS); severe swelling was scored as 7-8, mild-to-moderate as 4-6, normal as 3. The admission ONSD was measured via ultrasound; it was defined as abnormal if it was >4.5 mm in children >1 year and >4 mm in children <1 year. Favorable outcome was defined as a normal neurological exam on discharge in survivors. The primary and secondary objectives were evaluated using Spearman's correlation; and the demographics were compared using chi-square and the Kruskal-Wallis test (Stata, College Station, TX, USA). Results: Median age of the 207-patients cohort was 50 months [interquartile range (IQR) 35-75]; 49% (n = 102) were female. Of those, 73% (n = 152) had a favorable outcome, and 14% (n = 30) died. Twenty-nine (14%) had a normal BVS, 134 (65%) had mild-to-moderate swelling, and 44 (21%) had severe swelling. ONSD was elevated in 86% (n = 178) of patients, while 12% of patients had increased OP. There was a weakly positive correlation between BVS and ONSD (r = 0.14, p = 0.05). The median ONSD was not significantly different compared by discharge outcome (p = 0.11) or by BVS (p = 0.18). Conclusion: ONSD was not a reliable tool to correlate with BVS, neurological outcome, or OP in children with CM. Future studies to identify alternative methods of early identification of CM patients at highest risk for morbidity and mortality are urgently needed.

Multiple Organ Dysfunction Syndrome in Malawian Children with Cerebral Malaria.

More than 1,000 children under 5 years of age die every day from malaria. Cerebral malaria (CM) is the most severe and deadly manifestation of the disease. The occurrence of multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (MODS) has been associated with increased mortality in adult patients with CM. However, little is known about the frequency and severity of MODS in children with CM. This was a retrospective study of 199 pediatric patients with CM admitted to a referral hospital in Blantyre, Malawi, between January 2019 and May 2023. Data were abstracted from charts to calculate scores using four established scoring systems: Pediatric Logistic Organ Dysfunction-2 (PELOD-2), Pediatric Sequential Organ Failure Assessment (pSOFA), Signs of Inflammation in Children that Can Kill (SICK), and Lambaréné Organ Dysfunction Score (LODS). Mortality was 16% (n = 32). All four scoring systems were predictive of mortality, but the PELOD-2 and pSOFA scores outperformed the others with area under the curve values of 0.75 and 0.67, respectively. Multiple organ dysfunction syndrome was diagnosed in 182 patients (91%) using the PELOD-2 score, 172 patients (86%) using the pSOFA score, 99 patients (50%) using the SICK score, and 30 patients (15%) using the LODS. The PELOD-2 and pSOFA identify MODS in children with CM but require laboratory-based testing that is often unavailable in malaria-endemic areas. Furthermore, these scoring systems may identify primary malarial disease pathology rather than true organ dysfunction. Simplified scoring systems designed to recognize and quantify MODS in this patient population may provide opportunities for improved resource allocation and timely, organ-specific treatment.