Decorin-evoked paternally expressed gene 3 (PEG3) is an upstream regulator of the transcription factor EB (TFEB) in endothelial cell autophagy.

Macroautophagy is a fundamental and evolutionarily conserved catabolic process that eradicates damaged and aging macromolecules and organelles in eukaryotic cells. Decorin, an archetypical small leucine-rich proteoglycan, initiates a protracted autophagic program downstream of VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) signaling that requires paternally expressed gene 3 (PEG3). We have discovered that PEG3 is an upstream transcriptional regulator of transcription factor EB (TFEB), a master transcription factor of lysosomal biogenesis, for decorin-evoked endothelial cell autophagy. We found a functional requirement of PEG3 for TFEB transcriptional induction and nuclear translocation in human umbilical vein endothelial and PAER2 cells. Mechanistically, inhibiting VEGFR2 or AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK), a major decorin-activated energy sensor kinase, prevented decorin-evoked TFEB induction and nuclear localization. In conclusion, our findings indicate a non-canonical (nutrient- and energy-independent) mechanism underlying the pro-autophagic bioactivity of decorin via PEG3 and TFEB.

Decorin causes autophagy in endothelial cells via Peg3.

Soluble decorin affects the biology of several receptor tyrosine kinases by triggering receptor internalization and degradation. We found that decorin induced paternally expressed gene 3 (Peg3), an imprinted tumor suppressor gene, and that Peg3 relocated into autophagosomes labeled by Beclin 1 and microtubule-associated light chain 3. Decorin evoked Peg3-dependent autophagy in both microvascular and macrovascular endothelial cells leading to suppression of angiogenesis. Peg3 coimmunoprecipitated with Beclin 1 and LC3 and was required for maintaining basal levels of Beclin 1. Decorin, via Peg3, induced transcription of Beclin 1 and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 alpha genes, thereby leading to a protracted autophagic program. Mechanistically, decorin interacted with VEGF receptor 2 (VEGFR2) in a region overlapping with its natural ligand VEGFA, and VEGFR2 was required for decorin-evoked Beclin 1 and microtubule-associated protein 1 light chain 3 alpha expression as well as for Peg3 induction in endothelial cells. Moreover, decorin induced VEGFR2-dependent mitochondrial fragmentation and loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. Thus, we have unveiled a mechanism for a secreted proteoglycan in inducing Peg3, a master regulator of macroautophagy in endothelial cells.

Decorin induces mitophagy in breast carcinoma cells via peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) and mitostatin.

Tumor cell mitochondria are key biosynthetic hubs that provide macromolecules for cancer progression and angiogenesis. Soluble decorin protein core, hereafter referred to as decorin, potently attenuated mitochondrial respiratory complexes and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in MDA-MB-231 breast carcinoma cells. We found a rapid and dynamic interplay between peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ coactivator-1α (PGC-1α) and the decorin-induced tumor suppressor gene, mitostatin. This interaction stabilized mitostatin mRNA with concurrent accumulation of mitostatin protein. In contrast, siRNA-mediated abrogation of PGC-1α-blocked decorin-evoked stabilization of mitostatin. Mechanistically, PGC-1α bound MITOSTATIN mRNA to achieve rapid stabilization. These processes were orchestrated by the decorin/Met axis, as blocking the Met-tyrosine kinase or knockdown of Met abrogated these responses. Furthermore, depletion of mitostatin blocked decorin- or rapamycin-evoked mitophagy, increased vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) production, and compromised decorin-evoked VEGFA suppression. Collectively, our findings underscore the complexity of PGC-1α-mediated mitochondrial homeostasis and establish mitostatin as a key regulator of tumor cell mitophagy and angiostasis.

Decorin potentiates interferon-γ activity in a model of allergic inflammation.

The proteoglycan decorin modulates leukocyte recruitment during delayed-type hypersensitivity responses. Decorin-deficient (Dcn(-/-)) mice show reduced edema formation during the first 24 h with a concurrent attenuated recruitment of CD8(+) leukocytes in the inflamed Dcn(-/-) ears. The aim of this study was to elucidate the molecular pathways affected by the loss of decorin. In vivo, reduced numbers of CD8(+) cells in Dcn(-/-) ears correlated with a reduced interferon-γ (Ifn-γ) and CXCL-10 expression. In vitro, Dcn(-/-) lymphocytes displayed an increased adhesion to brain microvascular (bEnd.3) endothelial cells. Decorin treatment of bEnd.3 increased Icam1 and down-regulated Vcam1 expression after TNF-α stimulation. However, Dcn(-/-) and wild-type lymphocytes produced IFN-γ after activation with CD3ε. Upon incubation with decorin, endothelial cells and fibroblasts responded differently to IFN-γ and TNF-α; CCL2 in bEnd.3 cells was more prominently up-regulated by TNF-α compared with IFN-γ. Notably, both factors were more potent in the presence of decorin. Compared with TNF-α, IFN-γ treatment induced significantly more CXCL-10, and both factors increased synthesis of CXCL-10 in the presence of decorin. The response to IFN-γ was similar in Dcn(-/-) and wild-type fibroblasts, an additional source of CXCL-10. However, addition of decorin yielded significantly more CXCL-10. Notably, decorin increased the stability of IFN-γ in vitro and potentiated IFN-γ-induced activation of STAT-1. Furthermore, only dermatan sulfate influenced IFN-γ signaling by significantly increasing CXCL-10 expression in contrast to decorin protein core alone. Our data demonstrate that decorin modulates delayed-type hypersensitivity responses by augmenting the induction of downstream effector cytokines of IFN-γ and TNF-α, thereby influencing the recruitment of CD8(+) lymphocytes into the inflamed tissue.

Modulation of canonical Wnt signaling by the extracellular matrix component biglycan.

Although extracellular control of canonical Wnt signaling is crucial for tissue homeostasis, the role of the extracellular microenvironment in modulating this signaling pathway is largely unknown. In the present study, we show that a member of the small leucine-rich proteoglycan family, biglycan, enhances canonical Wnt signaling by mediating Wnt function via its core protein. Immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that biglycan interacts with both the canonical Wnt ligand Wnt3a and the Wnt coreceptor low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6), possibly via the formation of a trimeric complex. Biglycan-deficient cells treated with exogenous Wnt3a had less Wnt3a retained in cell layers compared with WT cells. Furthermore, the Wnt-induced levels of LRP6 phosphorylation and expression of several Wnt target genes were blunted in biglycan-deficient cells. Both recombinant biglycan proteoglycan and biglycan core protein increased Wnt-induced ß-catenin/T cell-specific factor-mediated transcriptional activity, and this activity was completely inhibited by Dickkopf 1. Interestingly, recombinant biglycan was able to rescue impaired Wnt signaling caused by a previously described missense mutation in the extracellular domain of human LRP6 (R611C). Furthermore, biglycan's modulation of canonical Wnt signaling affected the functional activities of osteoprogenitor cells, including the RUNX2-mediated transcriptional activity and calcium deposition. Use of a transplant system and a fracture healing model revealed that expression of Wnt-induced secreted protein 1 was decreased in bone formed by biglycan-deficient cells, further suggesting reduced Wnt signaling in vivo. We propose that biglycan may serve as a reservoir for Wnt in the pericellular space and modulate Wnt availability for activation of the canonical Wnt pathway.

Biglycan is an extracellular MuSK binding protein important for synapse stability.

The receptor tyrosine kinase MuSK is indispensable for nerve-muscle synapse formation and maintenance. MuSK is necessary for prepatterning of the endplate zone anlage and as a signaling receptor for agrin-mediated postsynaptic differentiation. MuSK-associated proteins such as Dok7, LRP4, and Wnt11r are involved in these early events in neuromuscular junction formation. However, the mechanisms regulating synapse stability are poorly understood. Here we examine a novel role for the extracellular matrix protein biglycan in synapse stability. Synaptic development in fetal and early postnatal biglycan null (bgn(-/o)) muscle is indistinguishable from wild-type controls. However, by 5 weeks after birth, nerve-muscle synapses in bgn(-/o) mice are abnormal as judged by the presence of perijunctional folds, increased segmentation, and focal misalignment of acetylcholinesterase and AChRs. These observations indicate that previously occupied presynaptic and postsynaptic territory has been vacated. Biglycan binds MuSK and the levels of this receptor tyrosine kinase are selectively reduced at bgn(-/o) synapses. In bgn(-/o) myotubes, the initial stages of agrin-induced MuSK phosphorylation and AChR clustering are normal, but the AChR clusters are unstable. This stability defect can be substantially rescued by the addition of purified biglycan. Together, these results indicate that biglycan is an extracellular ligand for MuSK that is important for synapse stability.

Decorin antagonizes the angiogenic network: concurrent inhibition of Met, hypoxia inducible factor 1α, vascular endothelial growth factor A, and induction of thrombospondin-1 and TIMP3.

Decorin, a small leucine-rich proteoglycan, inhibits tumor growth by antagonizing multiple receptor tyrosine kinases including EGFR and Met. Here, we investigated decorin during normoxic angiogenic signaling. An angiogenic PCR array revealed a profound decorin-evoked transcriptional inhibition of pro-angiogenic genes, such as HIF1A. Decorin evoked a reduction of hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1α and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) in MDA-231 breast carcinoma cells expressing constitutively-active HIF-1α. Suppression of Met with decorin or siRNA evoked a similar reduction of VEGFA by attenuating downstream ß-catenin signaling. These data establish a noncanonical role for ß-catenin in regulating VEGFA expression. We found that exogenous decorin induced expression of thrombospondin-1 and TIMP3, two powerful angiostatic agents. In contrast, decorin suppressed both the expression and enzymatic activity of matrix metalloprotease (MMP)-9 and MMP-2, two pro-angiogenic proteases. Our data establish a novel duality for decorin as a suppressor of tumor angiogenesis under normoxia by simultaneously down-regulating potent pro-angiogenic factors and inducing endogenous anti-angiogenic agents.

Omega-3 fatty acids induce apoptosis in human breast cancer cells and mouse mammary tissue through syndecan-1 inhibition of the MEK-Erk pathway.

Human epidemiological studies have shown that diets enriched in n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) are associated with a lower incidence of cancers including breast cancer. Our previous studies showed that the n-3 PUFA, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), upregulated syndecan-1 (SDC-1) expression to induce apoptosis in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. We now present evidence of a signaling pathway that is impacted by SDC-1 in these cells and in mouse mammary tissues to result in apoptosis. In MCF-7 cells and SK-BR-3 cells, DHA and a SDC-1 ectodomain impaired signaling of the p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway by inhibiting the phosphorylation of MAPK/Erk (MEK)/extracellular signal-regulated kinase (Erk) and Bad to induce apoptosis. SDC-1 siRNA significantly enhanced phosphorylation of these signal molecules and blocked the inhibitory effects of DHA on their phosphorylation. SDC-1 siRNA diminished apoptosis of MCF-7 cells, an effect that was markedly blocked by MEK inhibitor, PD98059. In vivo studies used (i) Fat-1 mice, a genetic model able to convert n-6 to n-3 PUFA to result in higher SDC-1 levels in Fat-1 mammary tissue compared with that of wild-type (wt) mice. Phosphorylation of MEK, Erk and Bad was lower in the Fat-1 versus wt tissue and (ii) SDC-1(-/-) mice that demonstrated markedly higher levels of phosphorylated MEK, Erk and Bad in mammary gland tissue compared with those of SDC(+/+) mice. These data elucidate a pathway whereby SDC-1, upregulated by DHA, induces apoptosis in breast cancer cells through inhibition of MEK/Erk/Bad signaling.

Decorin antagonizes Met receptor activity and down-regulates {beta}-catenin and Myc levels.

A theme emerging during the past few years is that members of the small leucine-rich proteoglycan gene family affect cell growth by interacting with multiple receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs), mostly by a physical down-regulation of the receptors, thereby depriving tumor cells of pro-survival signals. Decorin binds and down-regulates several RTKs, including Met, the receptor for hepatocyte growth factor. Here we demonstrate that decorin blocks several biological activities mediated by the Met signaling axis, including cell scatter, evasion, and migration. These effects were mediated by a profound down-regulation of noncanonical ß-catenin levels. In addition, Myc, a downstream target of ß-catenin, was markedly down-regulated by decorin, whereas phosphorylation of Myc at threonine 58 was markedly induced. The latter is known to destabilize Myc and target it for proteasomal degradation. We also discovered that systemic delivery of decorin using three distinct tumor xenograft models caused down-regulation of Met and a concurrent suppression of ß-catenin and Myc levels. We found that decorin protein core labeled with the near infrared dye IR800 specifically targeted the tumor cells expressing Met. Even 68-h post-injection, decorin was found to reside within the tumor xenografts with little or no binding to other tissues. Collectively, our results indicate a role for a secreted proteoglycan in suppressing the expression of key oncogenic factors required for tumor progression.

An antimetastatic role for decorin in breast cancer.

Decorin, a member of the small leucine-rich proteoglycan gene family, down-regulates members of the ErbB receptor tyrosine kinase family and attenuates their signaling, leading to growth inhibition. We investigated the effects of decorin on the growth of ErbB2-overexpressing mammary carcinoma cells in comparison with AG879, an established ErbB2 kinase inhibitor. Cell proliferation and anchorage-independent growth assays showed that decorin was a potent inhibitor of breast cancer cell growth and a pro-apoptotic agent. When decorin and AG879 were used in combination, the inhibitory effect was synergistic in proliferation assays but only additive in both colony formation and apoptosis assays. Active recombinant human decorin protein core, AG879, or a combination of both was administered systemically to mice bearing orthotopic mammary carcinoma xenografts. Primary tumor growth and metabolism were reduced by approximately 50% by both decorin and AG879. However, no synergism was observed in vivo. Decorin specifically targeted the tumor cells and caused a significant reduction of ErbB2 levels in the tumor xenografts. Most importantly, systemic delivery of decorin prevented metastatic spreading to the lungs, as detected by novel species-specific DNA detection and quantitative assays. In contrast, AG879 failed to have any effect. Our data support a role for decorin as a powerful and effective therapeutic agent against breast cancer due to its inhibition of both primary tumor growth and metastatic spreading.

Biglycan regulates the expression and sarcolemmal localization of dystrobrevin, syntrophin, and nNOS.

The dystrophin-associated protein complex (DAPC) provides a linkage between the cytoskeleton and the extracellular matrix (ECM) and is also a scaffold for a host of signaling molecules. The constituents of the DAPC must be targeted to the sarcolemma in order to properly function. Biglycan is an ECM molecule that associates with the DAPC. Here, we show that biglycan null mice exhibit a mild dystrophic phenotype and display a selective reduction in the localization of alpha-dystrobrevin-1 and -2, alpha- and beta1-syntrophin, and nNOS at the sarcolemma. Purified biglycan induces nNOS redistribution to the plasma membrane in cultured muscle cells. Biglycan protein injected into muscle becomes stably associated with the sarcolemma and ECM for at least 2 wk. This injected biglycan restores the sarcolemmal expression of alpha-dystrobrevin-1 and -2, and beta1- and beta2-syntrophin in biglycan null mice. We conclude that biglycan is important for the maintenance of muscle cell integrity and plays a direct role in regulating the expression and sarcolemmal localization of the intracellular signaling proteins dystrobrevin-1 and -2, alpha- and beta1-syntrophin and nNOS.

Decorin prevents metastatic spreading of breast cancer.

Metastases in breast cancer are a vital concern in treatment, with epidermal growth factor receptor and ErbB2 strongly implicated in mediating tumor invasion and spreading. In this study, we investigated the role of decorin in suppressing both primary breast carcinomas and pulmonary metastases. We show that decorin causes marked growth suppression both in vitro and in vivo using a metastatic breast cancer cell line and an orthotopic mammary carcinoma model. Treatment with decorin protein core reduced primary tumor growth by 70% and eliminated observed metastases. An adenoviral vector containing the decorin transgene caused primary tumor retardation of 70%, in addition to greatly reducing observed metastases. Moreover, we demonstrate that ErbB2 phosphorylation and total receptor protein levels are reduced in this model system upon de novo expression of decorin under the control of a doxycycline-inducible promoter. Primary tumor growth in vivo was reduced by up to 67% upon decorin induction, and pulmonary metastases were markedly hampered as well. These effects are likely occurring through decorin's long-term downregulation of the ErbB2 tyrosine kinase cascade. These results demonstrate a novel role for decorin in reduction or prevention of tumor metastases in this breast cancer model and could eventually lead to improved therapeutics for metastatic breast cancer.

Biglycan potentially regulates angiogenesis during fracture repair by altering expression and function of endostatin.

The small proteoglycan biglycan (Bgn) is highly expressed in the organic matrix of bone and plays a role in bone formation. Previous work implicated Bgn in vessel growth during bone healing [1]. By infusing barium sulfate (BaSO4) into WT and Bgn-deficient mice we discovered the positive effect of Bgn in modulating angiogenesis during fracture healing. Using micro-computed tomography angiography we found significant differences in the vessel size and volume among other parameters. To further understand the mechanistic basis for this, we explored the relationship between Bgn and the anti-angiogenic protein endostatin. Immunohistochemistry (IHC) showed co-localization of Bgn and endostatin in regions of bone formation, with increased endostatin staining in Bgn-KO compared to WT at 14days post-fracture. To further elucidate the relationship between Bgn and endostatin, an endothelial cell tube formation assay was used. This study showed that endothelial cells treated with endostatin had significantly decreased vessel length and vessel branches compared to untreated cells, while cells treated with endostatin and Bgn at a 1:1M ratio had vessel length and vessel branches comparable to untreated cells. This indicated that Bgn was able to mitigate the inhibitory effect of endostatin on endothelial cell growth. In summary, these results suggest that Bgn is needed for proper blood vessel formation during fracture healing, and one mechanism by which Bgn impacts angiogenesis is through inhibition of endostatin.

Biglycan and decorin differentially regulate signaling in the fetal membranes.

Preterm birth is the leading cause of newborn mortality in the United States and about one third of cases are caused by preterm premature rupture of fetal membranes, a complication that is frequently observed in patients with Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome. Notably, a subtype of Ehlers-Danlos Syndrome is caused by expression of abnormal biglycan and decorin proteoglycans. As compound deficiency of these two small leucine-rich proteoglycans is a model of preterm birth, we investigated the fetal membranes of Bgn(-/-); Dcn(-/-) double-null and single-null mice. Our results showed that biglycan signaling supported fetal membrane remodeling during early gestation in the absence of concomitant changes in TGFß levels. In late gestation, biglycan signaling acted in a TGFß-dependent manner to aid in membrane stabilization. In contrast, decorin signaling supported fetal membrane remodeling at early stages of gestation in a TGFß-dependent manner, and fetal membrane stabilization at later stages of gestation without changes in TGFß levels. Furthermore, exogenous soluble decorin was capable of rescuing the TGFß signaling pathway in fetal membrane mesenchymal cells. Collectively, these findings provide novel targets for manipulation of fetal membrane extracellular matrix stability and could represent novel targets for research on preventive strategies for preterm premature rupture of fetal membranes.

Decorin activates AMPK, an energy sensor kinase, to induce autophagy in endothelial cells.

The highly conserved eukaryotic process of macroautophagy (autophagy) is a non-specific bulk-degradation program critical for maintaining proper cellular homeostasis, and for clearing aged and damaged organelles. This decision is inextricably dependent upon prevailing metabolic demands and energy requirements of the cell. Soluble monomeric decorin functions as a natural tumor repressor that antagonizes a variety of receptor tyrosine kinases. Recently, we discovered that decorin induces endothelial cell autophagy, downstream of VEGFR2. This process was wholly dependent upon Peg3, a decorin-inducible genomically imprinted tumor suppressor gene. However, the signaling cascades responsible have remained elusive. In this report we discovered that Vps34, a class III phosphoinositide kinase, is an upstream kinase required for Peg3 induction. Moreover, decorin triggered differential formation of Vps34/Beclin 1 complexes with concomitant dissolution of inhibitive Bcl-2/Beclin 1 complexes. Further, decorin inhibited anti-autophagic signaling via suppression of Akt/mTOR/p70S6K activity with the concurrent activation of pro-autophagic AMPK-mediated signaling cascades. Mechanistically, AMPK is downstream of VEGFR2 and inhibition of AMPK signaling abrogated decorin-evoked autophagy. Collectively, these findings hint at the complexity of the underlying molecular relays necessary for decorin-evoked endothelial cell autophagy and reveal important therapeutic targets for augmenting autophagy and combatting tumor angiogenesis.

Reprint of: Decorin activates AMPK, an energy sensor kinase, to induce autophagy in endothelial cells.

The highly conserved eukaryotic process of macroautophagy (autophagy) is a non-specific bulk-degradation program critical for maintaining proper cellular homeostasis, and for clearing aged and damaged organelles. This decision is inextricably dependent upon prevailing metabolic demands and energy requirements of the cell. Soluble monomeric decorin functions as a natural tumor repressor that antagonizes a variety of receptor tyrosine kinases. Recently, we discovered that decorin induces endothelial cell autophagy, downstream of VEGFR2. This process was wholly dependent upon Peg3, a decorin-inducible genomically imprinted tumor suppressor gene. However, the signaling cascades responsible have remained elusive. In this report we discovered that Vps34, a class III phosphoinositide kinase, is an upstream kinase required for Peg3 induction. Moreover, decorin triggered differential formation of Vps34/Beclin 1 complexes with concomitant dissolution of inhibitive Bcl-2/Beclin 1 complexes. Further, decorin inhibited anti-autophagic signaling via suppression of Akt/mTOR/p70S6K activity with the concurrent activation of pro-autophagic AMPK-mediated signaling cascades. Mechanistically, AMPK is downstream of VEGFR2 and inhibition of AMPK signaling abrogated decorin-evoked autophagy. Collectively, these findings hint at the complexity of the underlying molecular relays necessary for decorin-evoked endothelial cell autophagy and reveal important therapeutic targets for augmenting autophagy and combatting tumor angiogenesis.

Biglycan modulates angiogenesis and bone formation during fracture healing.

Matrix proteoglycans such as biglycan (Bgn) dominate skeletal tissue and yet its exact role in regulating bone function is still unclear. In this paper we describe the potential role of (Bgn) in the fracture healing process. We hypothesized that Bgn could regulate fracture healing because of previous work showing that it can affect normal bone formation. To test this hypothesis, we created fractures in femurs of 6-week-old male wild type (WT or Bgn+/0) and Bgn-deficient (Bgn-KO or Bgn-/0) mice using a custom-made standardized fracture device, and analyzed the process of healing over time. The formation of a callus around the fracture site was observed at both 7 and 14 days post-fracture in WT and Bgn-deficient mice and immunohistochemistry revealed that Bgn was highly expressed in the fracture callus of WT mice, localizing within woven bone and cartilage. Micro-computed tomography (µCT) analysis of the region surrounding the fracture line showed that the Bgn-deficient mice had a smaller callus than WT mice. Histology of the same region also showed the presence of less cartilage and woven bone in the Bgn-deficient mice compared to WT mice. Picrosirius red staining of the callus visualized under polarized light showed that there was less fibrillar collagen in the Bgn-deficient mice, a finding confirmed by immunohistochemistry using antibodies to type I collagen. Interestingly, real time RT-PCR of the callus at 7 days post-fracture showed a significant decrease in relative vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF) gene expression by Bgn-deficient mice as compared to WT. Moreover, VEGF was shown to bind directly to Bgn through a solid-phase binding assay. The inability of Bgn to directly enhance VEGF-induced signaling suggests that Bgn has a unique role in regulating vessel formation, potentially related to VEGF storage or stabilization in the matrix. Taken together, these results suggest that Bgn has a regulatory role in the process of bone formation during fracture healing, and further, that reduced angiogenesis could be the molecular basis.

Decorin induces rapid secretion of thrombospondin-1 in basal breast carcinoma cells via inhibition of Ras homolog gene family, member A/Rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase 1.

Pathological neovascularization relies on an imbalance between potent proangiogenic agents and equally effective antiangiogenic cues. Collectively, these factors contribute to an angiogenic niche within the tumor microenvironment. Oncogenic events and hypoxia contribute to augmented levels of angiokines, and thereby activate the so-called angiogenic switch to promote aggressive tumorigenic and metastatic growth. Soluble decorin functions as a paracrine pan-inhibitor of receptor tyrosine kinases, such as Met and epidermal growth factor receptor, and thus is capable of suppressing angiogenesis under normoxia. This leads to noncanonical repression of hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha and vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA), and concurrent induction of thrombospondin-1. The substantial induction of endogenous tumor cell-derived thrombospondin-1, a potent antiangiogenic effector, led us to the discovery of an unexpected secretory phenotype occurring very rapidly (within 5 min) after decorin treatment of the triple-negative basal breast carcinoma cell line MDA-MB-231. Surprisingly, the effect was not mediated by Met receptor antagonism, as initially hypothesized, but required epidermal growth factor receptor signaling to achieve swift and robust thrombospondin-1 release. Furthermore, this effect was ultimately dependent on the prompt degradation of Ras homolog gene family member A, via the 26S proteasome, leading to direct inactivation of Rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase 1. The latter led to derepression of thrombospondin-1 secretion. Collectively, these data provide a novel mechanistic role for Rho-associated coiled-coil containing protein kinase 1, in addition to providing the first conclusive evidence of decorin exclusively targeting a receptor tyrosine kinase to achieve a specific effect. The overall effects of soluble decorin on the tumor microenvironment would cause an immediately-early as well as a sustained antiangiogenic response in vivo.

The dermatan sulfate proteoglycan decorin modulates α2ß1 integrin and the vimentin intermediate filament system during collagen synthesis.

Decorin, a small leucine-rich proteoglycan harboring a dermatan sulfate chain at its N-terminus, is involved in regulating matrix organization and cell signaling. Loss of the dermatan sulfate of decorin leads to an Ehlers-Danlos syndrome characterized by delayed wound healing. Decorin-null (Dcn(-/-)) mice display a phenotype similar to that of EDS patients. The fibrillar collagen phenotype of Dcn(-/-) mice could be rescued in vitro by decorin but not with decorin lacking the glycosaminoglycan chain. We utilized a 3D cell culture model to investigate the impact of the altered extracellular matrix on Dcn(-/-) fibroblasts. Using 2D gel electrophoresis followed by mass spectrometry, we identified vimentin as one of the proteins that was differentially upregulated by the presence of decorin. We discovered that a decorin-deficient matrix leads to abnormal nuclear morphology in the Dcn(-/-) fibroblasts. This phenotype could be rescued by the decorin proteoglycan but less efficiently by the decorin protein core. Decorin treatment led to a significant reduction of the α2ß1 integrin at day 6 in Dcn(-/-) fibroblasts, whereas the protein core had no effect on ß1. Interestingly, only the decorin core induced mRNA synthesis, phosphorylation and de novo synthesis of vimentin indicating that the proteoglycan decorin in the extracellular matrix stabilizes the vimentin intermediate filament system. We could support these results in vivo, because the dermis of wild-type mice have more vimentin and less ß1 integrin compared to Dcn(-/-). Furthermore, the α2ß1 null fibroblasts also showed a reduced amount of vimentin compared to wild-type. These data show for the first time that decorin has an impact on the biology of α2ß1 integrin and the vimentin intermediate filament system. Moreover, our findings provide a mechanistic explanation for the reported defects in wound healing associated with the Dcn(-/-) phenotype.

Decorin protein core affects the global gene expression profile of the tumor microenvironment in a triple-negative orthotopic breast carcinoma xenograft model.

Decorin, a member of the small leucine-rich proteoglycan gene family, exists and functions wholly within the tumor microenvironment to suppress tumorigenesis by directly targeting and antagonizing multiple receptor tyrosine kinases, such as the EGFR and Met. This leads to potent and sustained signal attenuation, growth arrest, and angiostasis. We thus sought to evaluate the tumoricidal benefits of systemic decorin on a triple-negative orthotopic breast carcinoma xenograft model. To this end, we employed a novel high-density mixed expression array capable of differentiating and simultaneously measuring gene signatures of both Mus musculus (stromal) and Homo sapiens (epithelial) tissue origins. We found that decorin protein core modulated the differential expression of 374 genes within the stromal compartment of the tumor xenograft. Further, our top gene ontology classes strongly suggests an unexpected and preferential role for decorin protein core to inhibit genes necessary for immunomodulatory responses while simultaneously inducing expression of those possessing cellular adhesion and tumor suppressive gene properties. Rigorous verification of the top scoring candidates led to the discovery of three genes heretofore unlinked to malignant breast cancer that were reproducibly found to be induced in several models of tumor stroma. Collectively, our data provide highly novel and unexpected stromal gene signatures as a direct function of systemic administration of decorin protein core and reveals a fundamental basis of action for decorin to modulate the tumor stroma as a biological mechanism for the ascribed anti-tumorigenic properties.