PROFICIENCY AT OBJECT CONTROL SKILLS BY NINE- TO TEN-YEAR-OLD CHILDREN IN SOUTH AFRICA: THE NW-CHILD STUDY.

Adequate proficiency at object control skills, which is influenced by biological and environmental constraints, underlies the development of more complex sport-specific skills. This study describes proficiency at six object control skills and demographic correlates associated with each skill and each skill criteria in 9- to 10-year-old children who were randomly selected from 20 schools (N=826) and tested with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Cross-tabulation and hierarchical linear models were used to analyze the effects of sex (433 boys, 393 girls), ethnicity (619 Black, 207 White), and high (n=312) and low (n= 514) socioeconomic school environments. Twenty-three percent of the sample showed below average proficiency. Significant sex and socioeconomic school environment differences were found favoring boys and children from higher socioeconomic environments, although kicking showed significant interaction effects. It is concluded that environmental opportunities are the primary cause of differences across skills and the rates at which the skills are learned.

Relationships between academic performance, SES school type and perceptual-motor skills in first grade South African learners: NW-CHILD study.

BACKGROUND: Perceptual-motor skills contribute to a variety of basic learning skills associated with normal academic success. This study aimed to determine the relationship between academic performance and perceptual-motor skills in first grade South African learners and whether low SES (socio-economic status) school type plays a role in such a relationship. METHODS: This cross-sectional study of the baseline measurements of the NW-CHILD longitudinal study included a stratified random sample of first grade learners (n = 812; 418 boys and 394 boys), with a mean age of 6.78 years ± 0.49 living in the North West Province (NW) of South Africa. The Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration-4 (VMI) was used to assess visual-motor integration, visual perception and hand control while the Bruininks Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, short form (BOT2-SF) assessed overall motor proficiency. Academic performance in math, reading and writing was assessed with the Mastery of Basic Learning Areas Questionnaire. Linear mixed models analysis was performed with spss to determine possible differences between the different VMI and BOT2-SF standard scores in different math, reading and writing mastery categories ranging from no mastery to outstanding mastery. A multinomial multilevel logistic regression analysis was performed to assess the relationship between a clustered score of academic performance and the different determinants. RESULTS: A strong relationship was established between academic performance and VMI, visual perception, hand control and motor proficiency with a significant relationship between a clustered academic performance score, visual-motor integration and visual perception. A negative association was established between low SES school types on academic performance, with a common perceptual motor foundation shared by all basic learning areas. CONCLUSION: Visual-motor integration, visual perception, hand control and motor proficiency are closely related to basic academic skills required in the first formal school year, especially among learners in low SES type schools.

Relationship between the body composition and motor and physical competence of Grade 1 learners in South Africa.

AIM: The objective of this study was to determine relationships between body composition and motor and physical competence of Grade 1 learners living in the North West Province of South Africa. METHODS: Data were collected by means of a stratified random sampling procedure from 816 Grade 1 learners (419 boys, 397 girls) with a mean age of 6.84 years (+ 0.39 SD), in the NW-CHILD-study. Height, weight, skinfolds (subscapular, triceps, calf) and waist circumference were measured. International cut-off values were used to classify the subjects in normal, overweight or obese categories. Motor and physical competence was measured by using the Bruiniks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2 SF and the Test of Gross Motor Development 2. RESULTS: One out of 10 learners were overweight or obese. Fine motor precision, balance, running speed and agility and strength correlated significantly with BMI with no clear relationships with object control skills and upper limb-coordination. CONCLUSION: A clear relationship was found between body composition and most of the motor and physical fitness competencies of Grade 1 learners. Intervention strategies to improve the body composition of overweight children and accompanying motor proficiency back logs and physical fitness deficiencies are recommended.

The effect of a multidisciplinary physical activity intervention on the body composition and physical fitness of obese children.

AIM: The aim was to determine the effect of a physical activity, diet, and behaviour modification intervention of 13 weeks, 3x per week for 60 minutes on the body composition and physical fitness of overweight and obese children. METHODS: A convenience sample of 37 subjects with a mean age of 11 years (±0.99) was used, where 20 subjects (13 girls; seven boys) took part in the intervention and 17 (11 girls; six boys) formed part of the control group. Body composition (height, body mass, skinfolds, circumferences, body fat percentage, and body mass index) and health-promoting physical fitness (cardiorespiratory endurance, flexibility, muscular strength, and muscular endurance) were analysed using the Fitnessgram and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-II during baseline, after the intervention programme, and after a follow-up period of three months. RESULTS: The results showed statistical (P<0.05) and practical significant (d>0.2) improvement in the body composition of the group, after participation in the intervention, with a sustainable effect, three months later on body fat percentage and the subscapular skinfold. Muscular strength and flexibility improved significantly after the intervention, but with no sustainable effect. CONCLUSION: It is concluded that a multi-disciplinary obesity intervention can improve the body composition profile and the health-related physical fitness of young obese children, although the effect will not be sustainable without ongoing, controlled intervention.

Change over three years in adolescents' physical activity levels and patterns after a physical activity intervention: play study.

AIM: This study aimed to determine over a three-year period what the PA levels and patterns of adolescents will be after participating in a physical activity (PA) intervention. METHODS: African adolescents (158 boys, 211 girls, N.=309) from a disadvantaged environment in South Africa with a mean age of 14.9±1.4, boys and 14.3±1.4 girls) participated in the study as a PA intervention group (N.=282) and a control group (N.=87). Multi-level modelling (repeated measures analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) adjusted for attendance percentage and gender to compare the intervention and control groups and repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) over time, with a Bonferroni post hoc test were used to determine how the variables differ across the various testing opportunities. Week and weekend PA levels and patterns were analysed separately. RESULTS: Similar mean PA levels were found among the boys during week and weekend baseline measurements, with a significantly higher mean PA-level after three years in the intervention group. Baseline measurements for girls indicated statistically significant mean differences during the week and the weekend, although these mean differences were not significant during the end measurements. Boys and girls (excluding the intervention group of boys), showed a tendency of declining mean PA over the three years. The PA intervention showed a stabilising effect on PA levels and contributed to more active choices among the intervention group of boys, especially during weekends. CONCLUSION: Participation in similar PA interventions is recommended for adolescent boys, with adaptation to the content for girls.

The effect of different intervention programmes on the self-concept and motor proficiency of 7- to 9-year-old children with DCD.

BACKGROUND: The self-concept of children is influenced by developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD). The aim was to determine the most effective method in enhancing motor proficiency and self-concept of 7- to 9-year-old children with DCD. METHODS: Teachers at nine different schools identified 201 possible DCD candidates. The Movement Assessment Battery for Children identified 58 with DCD (36 boys and 22 girls). Self-concept and anxiety were determined by the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale (Child Form) and Child Anxiety Scale respectively. The children were randomly grouped into four experimental groups [motor intervention (MI), self-concept (SC) enhancing intervention, psycho-motor intervention (P-MI) and a control group (CG)]. A two-way analysis of variance (anova) with a group factor and a repeated measures over time followed by a Bonferroni post hoc analysis and separate one-way anovas followed by a Tukey post hoc analysis were conducted to determine between-group and within-group differences at the pre-, post- and re-tests. Effect sizes (d) were calculated to determine the practical significance of statistical differences (P < 0.05). RESULTS: After completion of the intervention programmes, no significant improvement in motor proficiency was found in the SC group, while the MI, P-MI and CG groups improved significantly (P < 0.01). No further improvements were found after the retention period in all the groups. From the pre-test to retest 2, the MI, P-MI and CG improved (P < 0.01), while the SC showed lower (P > 0.05) motor proficiency. A tendency of lower anxiety (P > 0.05) was found in the SC, while the total self-concept of the P-MI showed the biggest improvement (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION: Motor proficiency and self-concept of children with DCD benefit from intervention, but both should be addressed for optimal benefits.

Body composition and physical fitness of undernourished South African rural primary school children.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine the relationships between the body composition characteristics, body mass index (BMI), sum of skinfolds (SSF), % body fat (%BF), fat-free mass (FFM) and waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), and nine physical fitness items in undernourished rural primary school children in Ellisras, South Africa. DESIGN: A cross-sectional study. SETTING: The study consisted of 462 boys and 393 girls who were aged 7-14 y. MEASUREMENTS: Five body composition measures were assessed: BMI, SSF, %BF, FFM and WHR. Nine physical fitness test items were assessed: standing long jump, bent arm hang, sit-ups, 10 x 5 m shuttle run, 50 m sprint, 1600 m run, flamingo balance, sit and reach, plate tapping. RESULTS: BMI was highly correlated with FFM (r = 0.7, P < 0.001). In line with findings from Western countries, regression coefficients (B) showed that children with higher BMI or SSF performed worse in bent arm hang (girls, B = -0.84, P < 0.001, and B = -0.06, P = 0.02, respectively) and in 1600m run (B = 6.68, P < 0.001). BMI was significantly associated with flamingo balance (B = 0.26, P = 0.04). WHR was positively associated with bent arm hang (B = 9.37, P = 0.03), and inversely with sit and reach (B = -7.48, P = 0.01). In contrast, significant relationships were found between BMI and standing long jump (B = 0.74, P = 0.04), sit and reach (B = 0.51, P < 0.001), flamingo balance (B = 0.26, P = 0.04) and plate tapping (B = -19, P = 0.01). SSF was significantly associated with sit and reach (B = 0.04, P = 0.03). Significant inverse associations were found between FFM and bent arm hang (girls, B = -0.06, P = 0.05), 1600 m run (girls, B = -2.33, P = 0.003) and 50 m run (boys, B = -0.11, P = 0.006). FFM was significantly associated with standing long jump (boys, B = 0.99, P < 0.001; girls, B = 0.73, P < 0.001), flamingo balance (B = 0.17, P < 0.001), and with sit and reach (boys, B = 0.59, P = 0.03). CONCLUSION: In the present study in undernourished children, body composition was significantly related to physical fitness, but not always in the expected direction. It is therefore important to note that in this population, BMI should not be interpreted as a measure of fatness/overweight, but rather as an indicator of muscle mass.

Habitual physical activity and body composition of black township adolescents residing in the North West Province, South Africa.

OBJECTIVE: It is known that stunting and obesity affect a large proportion of children in the world, and these can be affected by the physical activity levels of the children. In the present study, we evaluated the association between physical activity, physical development and body composition in black adolescent children. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Black township schools in the North West Province, South Africa. METHODS: Three-hundred and thirteen grade 8 children were included in the Physical Activity in Youth study. Anthropometric measurements, body composition measures and maturity level as assessed by Tanner stages were determined in these children. In addition, Previous Day Physical Activity Recall questionnaires were administered on the children to record the various activities they undertake daily. RESULTS: The demographic characteristics of the children showed a high level of homogeneity. A high prevalence of stunting (16.3%) was observed in the children, which was higher in boys than in girls (21.6 vs. 12.3%). Also prevalent was overweight/obesity (8.6%), but this was higher in girls than in boys (13.4 vs. 1.6%). The children also showed a reduction in levels of physical activity with advancement in maturity; furthermore, boys showed a more central form of fat deposition whilst girls showed more gynoid deposition. CONCLUSIONS: The study revealed that physical activity plays a role in determining body composition, and further indicated that physical activity is associated with favourable body composition measures. Children who were more active were likely to have less fat deposits.

Identifying and developing rugby talent among 10-year-old boys: a practical model.

The re-entry of South Africa into the international sporting arena and the resultant need for the identification and development of talent, especially among formerly deprived groups of people, provided the incentive for this study. Its aim was to identify the physical, motor and anthropometric variables that will enable coaches to identify 10-year-old boys, based on their abilities, who could become successful rugby players. Altogether, 173 ten-year-old boys with no rugby experience from a cross-section of the population were selected at random and subjected to 14 physical and motor tests and 14 anthropometric measurements. From 22 schools which participated in the Western Transvaal primary schools under-11 rugby league, the three top teams (n = 45 individuals) were selected and also tested. The results from these three teams were used as the criteria for rugby talent among 10-year-old boys. To establish the best predictors of talent, a stepwise discriminant analysis was conducted: this indicated eight variables (four motor and four anthropometric) that discriminated maximally between the talented and the rest of the players of this age. With classification functions based on these eight variables, 93.8% of all the subjects were classified correctly, indicating good validity. A canonical analysis, based on the selected variables, was then conducted on all the under-11 teams that played in the league in the region (n = 330), and they were ranked according to the scores of the first canonical variable from the most to the least talented. By comparing these results with the players who were chosen for the region's primary schools team, a success rate of 88% in prediction of talent was established. We conclude that this is a successful and practical method to aid the teacher and the coach in selecting and developing talent among 10-year-old rugby players in South Africa.