Multikinase activity of fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) inhibitors SU5402, PD173074, AZD1480, AZD4547 and BGJ398 compromises the use of small chemicals targeting FGFR catalytic activity for therapy of short-stature syndromes.

Activating mutations in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 3 (FGFR3) cause the most common genetic form of human dwarfism, achondroplasia (ACH). Small chemical inhibitors of FGFR tyrosine kinase activity are considered to be viable option for treating ACH, but little experimental evidence supports this claim. We evaluated five FGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs) (SU5402, PD173074, AZD1480, AZD4547 and BGJ398) for their activity against FGFR signaling in chondrocytes. All five TKIs strongly inhibited FGFR activation in cultured chondrocytes and limb rudiment cultures, completely relieving FGFR-mediated inhibition of chondrocyte proliferation and maturation. In contrast, TKI treatment of newborn mice did not improve skeletal growth and had lethal toxic effects on the liver, lungs and kidneys. In cell-free kinase assays as well as in vitro and in vivo cell assays, none of the tested TKIs demonstrated selectivity for FGFR3 over three other FGFR tyrosine kinases. In addition, the TKIs exhibited significant off-target activity when screened against a panel of 14 unrelated tyrosine kinases. This was most extensive in SU5402 and AZD1480, which inhibited DDR2, IGF1R, FLT3, TRKA, FLT4, ABL and JAK3 with efficiencies similar to or greater than those for FGFR. Low target specificity and toxicity of FGFR TKIs thus compromise their use for treatment of ACH. Conceptually, different avenues of therapeutic FGFR3 targeting should be investigated.

Environmental six-ring polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons are potent inducers of the AhR-dependent signaling in human cells.

The toxicities of many environmental polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), in particular those of high-molecular-weight PAHs (with MW higher than 300), remain poorly characterized. The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of selected environmentally relevant PAHs with MW 302 (MW302 PAHs) to activate the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR), since this represents a major toxic mode of action of PAHs. A large number of the evaluated compounds exhibited strong AhR-mediated activities, in particular in human models. The studied MW302 PAHs also significantly contributed to the overall calculated AhR activities of complex environmental mixtures, including both defined standard reference materials and collected diesel exhaust particles. The high AhR-mediated activities of representative MW302 PAHs, e.g. naphtho[1,2-k]fluoranthene, corresponded with the modulation of expression of relevant AhR target genes in a human lung cell model, or with the AhR-dependent suppression of cell cycle progression/proliferation in estrogen-sensitive cells. This was in a marked contrast with the limited genotoxicity of the same compound(s). Given the substantial levels of the AhR-activating MW302 PAHs in combustion particles, it seems important to continue to investigate the toxic modes of action of this large group of PAHs associated with airborne particulate matter.

Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor-Dependent Metabolism Plays a Significant Role in Estrogen-Like Effects of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons on Cell Proliferation.

Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widespread environmental contaminants that interact in a complex manner with both the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and estrogen receptors (ER). Their potential endocrine-disrupting activities may depend on both inhibitory AhR-ER cross-talk and on AhR-dependent metabolic production of estrogenic PAH metabolites. Here, we analyzed the impact of AhR on estrogen-like effects of PAHs, such as benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), in particular, on control of cell cycle progression/cell proliferation. Using AhR knockout variant of estrogen-sensitive human breast cancer MCF-7 cells (MCF-7 AhRKO cells), we observed that the AhR-dependent control of cytochrome P450 family 1 (CYP1) expression played a major role in formation of estrogenic BaP metabolites, most notably 3-OH-BaP, which contributed to the ER-dependent induction of cell cycle progression/cell proliferation. Both BaP metabolism and the BaP-induced S-phase transition/cell proliferation were inhibited in MCF-7 AhRKO cells, whereas these cells remained sensitive towards both endogenous estrogen 17ß-estradiol or hydroxylated BaP metabolites. BaP was found to increase the activity of ER-dependent luciferase reporter gene in wild-type MCF-7 cells; however, unlike its hydroxylated metabolite, BaP failed to stimulate luciferase activity in MCF-7 AhRKO cells. Similarly, estrogen-like effects of other known estrogenic PAHs, such as benz[a]anthracene or 3-methylcholanthrene, were diminished in MCF-7 AhRKO cells. Ectopic expression of human CYP1A1 and CYP1B1 enzymes partly restored both BaP metabolism and its effects on cell proliferation. Taken together, our data suggest that the AhR-dependent metabolism of PAHs contributes significantly to the impact of PAHs on cell proliferation in estrogen-sensitive cells.

In vitro profiling of toxic effects of prominent environmental lower-chlorinated PCB congeners linked with endocrine disruption and tumor promotion.

The mechanisms contributing to toxic effects of airborne lower-chlorinated PCB congeners (LC-PCBs) remain poorly characterized. We evaluated in vitro toxicities of environmental LC-PCBs found in both indoor and outdoor air (PCB 4, 8, 11, 18, 28 and 31), and selected hydroxylated metabolites of PCB 8, 11 and 18, using reporter gene assays, as well as other functional cellular bioassays. We focused on processes linked with endocrine disruption, tumor promotion and/or regulation of transcription factors controlling metabolism of both endogenous compounds and xenobiotics. The tested LC-PCBs were found to be mostly efficient anti-androgenic (within nanomolar - micromolar range) and estrogenic (at micromolar concentrations) compounds, as well as inhibitors of gap junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) at micromolar concentrations. PCB 8, 28 and 31 were found to partially inhibit the aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR)-mediated activity. The tested LC-PCBs were also partial constitutive androstane receptor (CAR) and pregnane X receptor (PXR) agonists, with PCB 4, 8 and 18 being the most active compounds. They were inactive towards other nuclear receptors, such as vitamin D receptor, thyroid receptor α, glucocorticoid receptor or peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ. We found that only PCB 8 contributed to generation of oxidative stress, while all tested LC-PCBs induced arachidonic acid release (albeit without further modulations of arachidonic acid metabolism) in human lung epithelial cells. Importantly, estrogenic effects of hydroxylated (OH-PCB) metabolites of LC-PCBs (4-OH-PCB 8, 4-OH-PCB 11 and 4'-OH-PCB 18) were higher than those of the parent PCBs, while their other toxic effects were only slightly altered or suppressed. This suggested that metabolism may alter toxicity profiles of LC-PCBs in a receptor-specific manner. In summary, anti-androgenic and estrogenic activities, acute inhibition of GJIC and suppression of the AhR-mediated activity were found to be the most relevant modes of action of airborne LC-PCBs, although they partially affected also additional cellular targets.

Examination of Zolpidem effects on AhR- and PXR-dependent expression of drug-metabolizing cytochromes P450 in primary cultures of human hepatocytes.

A hypnotic drug Zolpidem is used in clinical practice for more than 25 years. Surprisingly, the effects of Zolpidem on the expression of drug-metabolizing cytochromes P450 (CYPs) were not examined yet. Recently, the unexpected capacity of several "old drugs", such as valproic acid or azoles, to induce CYPs was reported. Therefore, we tested whether Zolpidem induces the expression of important CYPs in primary cultures of human hepatocytes. Cells were treated for 24h with Zolpidem in therapeutic (0.1mg/L) and toxic (1mg/L) concentrations. The levels of CYP1A1, CYP1A2, CY2C9 and CYP3A4 mRNAs were not altered by Zolpidem, whereas model inducers dioxin and rifampicin significantly induced CYP1A and CYP2/3 gene expression, respectively. Consistently, Zolpidem did not activate aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) and pregnane X receptor (PXR), the key regulators of cytochromes P450s, as revealed by transient transfection gene reporter assays using HepG2 cells. We conclude Zolpidem be considered a safe drug with respect to the possible interactions through AhR- and PXR-dependent induction of drug-metabolizing CYPs.