POSTMORTEM FINDINGS IN EIGHT SPECIES OF CAPTIVE CAECILIAN (AMPHIBIA: GYMNOPHIONA) OVER A TEN-YEAR PERIOD.

Between July 2007 and June 2017 there were 86 deaths in the populations of eight caecilian species at the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) London Zoo. The mortality rate (deaths per animal-year at risk) ranged from 0.03 in the Congo caecilian (Herpele squalostoma) to 0.85 in Kaup's caecilian (Potomotyphlus kaupii). Among the 73 individuals examined post mortem, no cause of death or primary diagnosis could be established in 35 cases, but of the others the most common cause of death was dermatitis (22 cases). When all significant pathological findings were considered, skin lesions of varying types were again the commonest (56 cases), particularly among the aquatic species: Typhlonectes compressicauda (18 out of 21 cases), T. natans (8/10) and P. kaupii (12/14). Other common findings were poor gut-fill (35 cases), kidney and gastrointestinal lesions (10 cases each), generalized congestion (8 cases) and poor body condition (6 cases). This review adds to the growing body of knowledge regarding the presentations and causes of disease in captive caecilians.

Eimeria spp. in captive-reared corncrakes (Crex crex): results of a GeneScan assay consistent with high prevalence of infection and extra-intestinal life stages.

Eimeria crecis and Eimeria nenei have been detected in association with enteric disease ("coccidiosis") in the corncrake (Crex crex: Family Rallidae, Order Gruiformes). Both parasite species are common in apparently healthy free-living corncrakes, but captive-bred juvenile birds reared for reintroduction appeared particularly susceptible to clinical coccidiosis. We investigated the occurrence and relative pathogenicity of these Eimeria species in this juvenile corncrake population and developed a diagnostic species-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for their identification. PCR amplification and sequencing of 18S rDNA were performed on genomic DNA extracted from samples of corncrake intestine, liver and spleen. Sequences generated were used to design a GeneScan diagnostic PCR assay targeting a species-specific TTA indel located within the 18S rDNA - the results suggested this assay was more sensitive than the 18S rDNA/amplicon sequencing approach. Eimeria sp. DNA (consistent with Eimeria sp. infection) was detected at a high prevalence and E. crecis was the predominant species. Each Eimeria species was detected in cases with and without histological evidence of coccidiosis: parasite detection was not statistically associated with disease. In addition to intestinal tissue, liver and spleen samples were positive for Eimeria sp. DNA. Its detection in tissues other than intestine is unusual and a novel finding in corncrakes, although extra-intestinal infection occurs with closely related Eimeria species in cranes (Family Gruidae, Order Gruiformes). Eimeria sp. infection of corncrakes appears typically to be chronic, and to exhibit extra-intestinal spread: as in cranes, these characteristics may be adaptations to the host's migratory nature.

FERLAVIRUS-RELATED DEATHS IN A COLLECTION OF VIPERID SNAKES.

Between June and October 2013, 26 snakes of six viperid species kept in two adjoining rooms died ( n = 16) or were euthanized on medical (1) or welfare grounds (9). Two were from the main zoo collection, but the other 24 had been imported and quarantined for a minimum of 6 mo. Four of those that died and the single snake euthanized on medical grounds showed minor signs of respiratory disease prior to death, and five were weak, lethargic, and/or poor feeders. Frequent postmortem findings among all snakes were poor body condition (18) and respiratory disease (13). Seventeen cases were examined histologically, and pneumonia, sometimes with air sacculitis and/or tracheitis, was present in 15 individuals. Lung samples from 24 snakes were ferlavirus polymerase chain reaction (PCR) positive, and one of the two snakes for which only liver was available was also positive. The negative liver sample was from a snake that died of sepsis following anesthesia for surgical removal of a spindle cell sarcoma. Correlation with antemortem PCR testing of glottal and cloacal swabs in five cases was poor (sensitivity = 40%). Immunohistochemistry (IHC) for ferlaviruses on the tissues of 13 PCR-positive cases showed positive labeling in 7 only. Tissues samples from 22 ferlavirus PCR-positive snakes were examined for Chlamydia species by PCR, and 9 were positive, although DNA sequencing only confirmed two of three tested as Chlamydia pneumoniae. Immunohistochemistry for Chlamydia pneumoniae of seven cases (two Chlamydiales PCR positive, one of which was sequenced as C. pneumoniae, plus five negative) confirmed the Chlamydia PCR results. These two Chlamydiales PCR and IHC positive snakes were ferlavirus PCR positive, but IHC negative suggesting that, even though a ferlavirus was the predominant cause of the outbreak, in a few cases death may have been due to chlamydiosis with ferlavirus present, but not acting as the primary pathogen.

THE MANAGEMENT OF AN ORAL ANAPLASTIC SARCOMA IN A PYGMY HIPPOPOTAMUS (CHOEROPSIS LIBERIENSIS) USING INTRALESIONAL CHEMOTHERAPY.

An adult female captive pygmy hippopotamus (Choeropsis liberiensis) was diagnosed with an oral anaplastic sarcoma. The tumor was surgically debulked and intralesional chemotherapy with mitomycin C (0.4 mg/cm3 of tumor) and cisplatin (1 mg/cm3 of tumor) was administered. Chemotherapeutic treatment proved difficult due to the risks of repeated anesthetics and unknown drug efficacies. Marked proliferation of the mass was observed during estrus, and chemotherapy was repeated as an experimental treatment to slow tumor progression in order for the animal to remain in the species breeding program. Tumor proliferation was detected during the first trimester of pregnancy; however, in the lactation period, the mass became quiescent. No adverse reactions to chemotherapeutic drugs were observed and the animal continues to be monitored for tumor progression. This is the first report of an anaplastic sarcoma and of chemotherapy use in a pygmy hippopotamus and it highlights logistical considerations for treating neoplasia in this species.

DIAGNOSIS AND MANAGEMENT OF BENIGN PROSTATIC HYPERPLASIA IN A PIED TAMARIN (SAGUINUS BICOLOR).

An intact male pied tamarin (Saguinus bicolor) presented with a hunched posture while moving, dysuria, pollakiuria, and hematuria. After diagnostic imaging assessment and prostate biopsy, benign prostatic hyperplasia was diagnosed. Treatments with delmadinone acetate and osaterone caused clinical signs and hematuria to resolve temporarily for a variable period of time. Because of frequent recurrence, elective surgical castration was performed, leading to resolution of the clinical signs.

Mortality associated with avian reovirus infection in a free-living magpie (Pica pica) in Great Britain.

BACKGROUND: Avian reoviruses (ARVs) cause a range of disease presentations in domestic, captive and free-living bird species. ARVs have been reported as a cause of significant disease and mortality in free-living corvid species in North America and continental Europe. Until this report, there have been no confirmed cases of ARV-associated disease in British wild birds. CASE PRESENTATION: Sporadic individual magpie (Pica pica) mortality was detected at a single site in Buckinghamshire, England, April-September 2013. An adult female magpie was found moribund and subsequently died. Post-mortem examination identified hepatomegaly and splenomegaly as the most severe macroscopic abnormalities. Histopathological examination revealed extensive hepatic and splenic necrosis. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) identified virions of a size (circa 78 nm diameter) and morphology consistent with ARV in both the liver and the small intestinal (SI) contents. Nucleic acid extracted from pooled liver and spleen was positive on both a pan-reovirus nested PCR targeting the RNA-dependent RNA polymerase gene and a PCR using primers specific to the ARV sigma C protein gene. Virus isolated from the liver and the SI contents was characterised by a syncytial-type cytopathic effect, a reovirus-like appearance on TEM and sequence identical to that from PCR of tissues. In situ hybridisation confirmed co-localisation of ARV with lesions in the liver and spleen, implicating ARV as the causative agent. Splenic lymphoid atrophy and necrotic stomatitis associated with Aspergillus fumigatus infection were consistent with generalised immunosuppression and resultant opportunistic infection. CONCLUSIONS: The pathology and comprehensive virus investigations in this case indicate ARV as the primary pathogen in this magpie, with concurrent secondary infection subsequent to immunosuppression, as has been observed with reoviral infections in other bird species. ARV should be considered as a differential diagnosis for magpie, and potentially other corvid, disease and mortality incidents. This is the first demonstration of ARV-associated mortality in a wild bird in Britain. The prevalence and significance of ARV infection in British wild birds, and its implications for poultry and captive bird health, are currently unknown.

Seasonal recurrence of cowpox virus outbreaks in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus).

Cowpox virus infections in captive cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) with high morbidity and mortality have already been reported in the UK and Russia in the 1970s. However, most of the reported cases have been singular events. Here, we report a total of five cowpox virus outbreaks in cheetahs in the same safari park in Denmark between 2010 and 2014. Nine cheetahs showed varying severity of clinical disease; two of them died (22%). All episodes occurred between August and October of the respective year. No other carnivores kept at the same institution nor the keepers taking care of the animals were clinically affected. The clinical picture of cowpox was confirmed by extensive laboratory investigations including histopathological and molecular analyses as well as cell culture isolation of a cowpox virus. High anti-orthopoxvirus antibody titers were detected in all 9 diseased cheetahs compared to seven contact cheetahs without clinical signs and 13 cheetahs not in direct contact. Additionally, whole genome sequencing from one sample of each cluster with subsequent phylogenetic analysis showed that the viruses from different outbreaks have individual sequences but clearly form a clade distinct from other cowpox viruses. However, the intra-clade distances are still larger than those usually observed within clades of one event. These findings indicate multiple and separate introductions of cowpox virus, probably from wild rodent populations, where the virus keeps circulating naturally and is only sporadically introduced into the cheetahs. Sero-positivity of voles (Arvicola amphibious) caught in zoo grounds strengthens this hypothesis. As a consequence, recommendations are given for medical and physical management of diseased cheetahs, for hygienic measures as well as for pre-shipment isolation before cheetah export from zoo grounds.

Clinical, histological and prognostic features of a novel nail-bed lesion of cats: 41 cases.

Objectives There is a distinct subset of lesions arising on the digits of cats, located at or close to the nail-bed epithelium, which are typically composed of proliferative fibroblast-like cells, multinucleate giant cells and areas of osseous metaplasia, but currently there is no published literature detailing the clinical or histological features of these lesions. Methods This study identified 41 such cases from two large commercial diagnostic laboratories and assessed various histological and clinical features; 22 cases had additional follow-up data available. Results All masses in this study were exophytic, variably inflamed, contained large numbers of spindle cells and had areas of capillary formation. The majority also had areas of ulceration, multinucleate giant cells and osseous metaplasia. The mitotic count was variable, but mitoses were confined to the fibroblast-like cells. Male cats appeared predisposed and the second digit was the most commonly affected. Conclusions and relevance These distinctive lesions arising on the digits of cats had potential for local recurrence but metastasis was not reported. Based on these clinical and histological features, the masses in this study appear most similar to giant cell reparative granulomas, and trauma, injury to the nail or nail-bed and nail-bed infections may potentially contribute to their development.

Aprocta cylindrica (Nematoda) infection in a European Robin (Erithacus rubecula) in Britain.

A European Robin (Erithacus rubecula) found dead in England had marked blepharitis and periocular alopecia associated with Aprocta cylindrica (Nematoda: Aproctidae) and concurrent mixed fungal infections. Aprocta cylindrica should be considered a differential diagnosis in periocular abnormalities of robins and other insectivorous, migratory passerines in Western Europe.