Diagnostic performance of [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT, [18F]FDG PET/CT, MRI of the spine, and whole-body diagnostic CT and MRI in the detection of spinal bone metastases associated with pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma.

OBJECTIVE: To compare the diagnostic performance of [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT, [18F]FDG PET/CT, MRI of the spine, and whole-body CT and MRI for the detection of pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma (PPGL)-related spinal bone metastases. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Between 2014 and 2020, PPGL participants with spinal bone metastases prospectively underwent [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT, [18F]FDG PET/CT, MRI of the cervical-thoracolumbar spine (MRIspine), contrast-enhanced MRI of the neck and thoraco-abdominopelvic regions (MRIWB), and contrast-enhanced CT of the neck and thoraco-abdominopelvic regions (CTWB). Per-patient and per-lesion detection rates were calculated. Counting of spinal bone metastases was limited to a maximum of one lesion per vertebrae. A composite of all functional and anatomic imaging served as an imaging comparator. The McNemar test compared detection rates between the scans. Two-sided p values were reported. RESULTS: Forty-three consecutive participants (mean age, 41.7 ± 15.7 years; females, 22) with MRIspine were included who also underwent [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT (n = 43), [18F]FDG PET/CT (n = 43), MRIWB (n = 24), and CTWB (n = 33). Forty-one of 43 participants were positive for spinal bone metastases, with 382 lesions on the imaging comparator. [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT demonstrated a per-lesion detection rate of 377/382 (98.7%) which was superior compared to [18F]FDG (72.0%, 275/382, p < 0.001), MRIspine (80.6%, 308/382, p < 0.001), MRIWB (55.3%, 136/246, p < 0.001), and CTWB (44.8%, 132/295, p < 0.001). The per-patient detection rate of [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT was 41/41 (100%) which was higher compared to [18F]FDG PET/CT (90.2%, 37/41, p = 0.13), MRIspine (97.6%, 40/41, p = 1.00), MRIWB (95.7%, 22/23, p = 1.00), and CTWB (81.8%, 27/33, p = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT should be the modality of choice in PPGL-related spinal bone metastases due to its superior detection rate. CLINICAL RELEVANCE STATEMENT: In a prospective study of 43 pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma participants with spinal bone metastases, [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT had a superior per-lesion detection rate of 98.7% (377/382), compared to [18F]FDG PET/CT (p < 0.001), MRI of the spine (p < 0.001), whole-body CT (p < 0.001), and whole-body MRI (p < 0.001). KEY POINTS: • Data regarding head-to-head comparison between functional and anatomic imaging modalities to detect spinal bone metastases in pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma are limited. • [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT had a superior per-lesion detection rate of 98.7% in the detection of spinal bone metastases associated with pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma compared to other imaging modalities: [18]F-FDG PET/CT, MRI of the spine, whole-body CT, and whole-body MRI. • [68Ga]DOTATATE PET/CT should be the modality of choice in the evaluation of spinal bone metastases associated with pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma.

Paediatric phaeochromocytoma and paraganglioma: A clinical update.

Paediatric phaeochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGLs), though rare tumours, are associated with significant disability and death in the most vulnerable of patients early in their lives. However, unlike cryptogenic and insidious disease states, the clinical presentation of paediatric patients with PPGLs can be rather overt, allowing early diagnosis, granted that salient findings are recognized. Additionally, with prompt and effective intervention, prognosis is favourable if timely intervention is implemented. For this reason, this review focuses on four exemplary paediatric cases, succinctly emphasizing the now state-of-the-art concepts in paediatric PPGL management.

Preoperative 18F-FDG PET/CT in Pheochromocytomas and Paragangliomas Allows for Precision Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Fluorodeoxyglucose (F-FDG) positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) imaging is recommended in patients with metastatic pheochromocytoma (PC) and paraganglioma (PGL). There are no data on whether routine preoperative F-FDG PET/CT in all patients with PC/PGL impacts surgical management. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine whether routine preoperative F-FDG PET/CT imaging affects the surgical management of patients with PC/PGLs. METHODS: We analyzed clinical, biochemical, genetic, and anatomic imaging data in 93 consecutive patients with PC/PGL who collectively underwent a total of 100 operations and who had preoperative F-FDG PET/CT imaging. RESULTS: Of 100 operations, preoperative F-FDG PET/CT showed additional lesions compared to anatomic imaging in 15 cases. These patients were more likely to undergo an open surgical approach (P < 0.05). Presence of genetic mutation, redo operations, sex, age, or tumor size had no significant association with finding additional lesions on F-FDG PET/CT. CONCLUSIONS: Additional lesions detected on preoperative F-FDG-PET/CT imaging have an impact on the surgical approach in patients with PC/PGLs. Therefore, surgeons should routinely obtain F-FDG-PET/CT imaging in patients with PC/PGL to allow for a more precise surgical intervention.

Are patients with hormonally functional phaeochromocytoma and paraganglioma initially receiving a proper adrenoceptor blockade? A retrospective cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: Pharmacological treatment is mandatory in patients with hormonally functional phaeochromocytoma and paraganglioma (PHAEO/PGL). We evaluated if patients initially diagnosed with hormonally functional PHAEO/PGL by various medical subspecialties received proper adrenoceptor blockade, and analysed factors predicting the prescription of adequate treatment. METHODS: In a retrospective cohort study, we reviewed data from patients initially diagnosed with hormonally functional PHAEO/PGL outside the National Institutes of Health and Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, who were referred to these institutions between January 2001 and April 2015. Logistic regression was used to assess factors associated with proper adrenoceptor blockade. RESULTS: A total of 381 patients were included. Adequate pharmacological treatment was prescribed to 69·3%, of which 93·1% received α-adrenoceptor blockers. Regarding patients who were inappropriately treated, 53% did not receive any medication. Independent predictors of the prescription of a proper blockade were the diagnosis by endocrinologists [odds ratio (OR) 4·14; 95% confidence interval (CI), 2·51-6·85; P < 0·001], the presence of high blood pressure (OR 5·94; 95% CI, 3·11-11·33; P < 0·001) and the evidence of metastasis (OR 5·96; 95% CI, 1·93-18·46; P = 0·002). CONCLUSIONS: Although most patients received adequate pharmacological treatment, almost one-third were either not treated or received inappropriate medications. The diagnosis by endocrinologists, the presence of high blood pressure and the evidence of metastatic disease were identified as independent predictors of a proper blockade. These results highlight the need to educate physicians about the importance of starting adequate adrenoceptor blockade in all patients with hormonally functional PHAEO/PGL.

CHARACTERISTICS AND OUTCOMES OF METASTATIC SDHB AND SPORADIC PHEOCHROMOCYTOMA/PARAGANGLIOMA: AN NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH STUDY.

OBJECTIVE: Overall about 10 to 20% of pheochromocytomas/paragangliomas (PHEOs/PGLs) are metastatic, with higher metastatic potential observed in succinate dehydrogenase subunit B/fumarate hydratase (SDHB/FH)-related tumors. Due to the improved availability of biochemical and genetic testing and the frequent use of anatomical/functional imaging, there is currently a higher detection rate of metastatic PHEO/PGL. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of 132 patients (27 children, 105 adults) with metastatic PHEO/PGL diagnosed and treated from 2000 to 2014 was conducted. RESULTS: Seventy-seven (58%) males and 55 (42%) females were included; 39 (30%) have died, with no sex preference. Seventy-three (55%) patients had SDHB mutations; 59 (45%) patients had apparently sporadic tumors (AST). SDHB patients had an average age at primary tumor diagnosis of 31 ± 16 years compared to 40 ± 15 years in AST patients (P<.001). The average metastatic interval (MI) decreased with increasing age in both SDHB and AST patients (P = .013 for both). Only 16% of all primary tumors were smaller than 4.5 cm. Eleven percent of patients had biochemically silent disease, more with SDHB. Of SDHB patients, 23% had metastatic tumors at first diagnosis, compared to 15% of AST patients. Five- and 10-year survival rates were significantly better for metastatic AST than SDHB patients (P = .01). Overall survival was significantly different between children and adults (P = .037); this was mostly attributed to the SDHB patients, in whom children had statistically significantly longer survival than adults (P = .006). The deceased patients all died due to the PHEO/PGL and mainly had noradrenergic phenotypes. CONCLUSION: In children, metastatic PHEOs/PGLs are mainly due to SDHB mutations; in adults they are equally distributed between in SDHB mutations and AST, with better 5- and 10-year survival rates for ASTs. In SDHB patients, children survive longer than adults. Primary metastatic tumors, most presenting as noradrenergic PGLs, are larger than 4.5 cm in >80% of patients. The frequency of metastatic tumors from primary AST increases with age, including a decreased MI compared to SDHB tumors. These results support several recommendations that are summarized in the Discussion.

The presence of SDHB mutations should modify surgical indications for carotid body paragangliomas.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine whether the genetic background of the disease should be incorporated into treatment decision making. BACKGROUND: Carotid body paragangliomas are rare tumors that often affect patients with genetic mutations of the succinate dehydrogenase complex (SDHx). Despite growing evidence that germ line genetic mutations alter the aggressiveness of paragangliomas, treatment decisions are currently based only on clinical symptoms and tumor size in patients with carotid body paragangliomas. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of 34 patients with carotid body paragangliomas who underwent genetic testing and surgical treatment. Recurrence was defined by the return of locoregional disease and/or development of distant metastases. Clinical characteristics and genetic testing results were analyzed as predictors of patient outcomes. RESULTS: Thirty-four patients underwent 41 primary carotid body paraganglioma resections (median follow-up time of 42 months, range: 1-293). Overall survival was 91.2%. Twelve patients had germ line mutations in SDHB, 17 in SDHD, and 5 carried no known mutation. Surgical resection of larger tumors was associated with higher operative complications (odds ratio: 5.4, P = 0.05). Tumor size at resection was significantly smaller in patients with SDHB mutations than in patients with non-SDHB mutations (2.1 vs 3.3 cm, P = 0.02). Patients with a mutation in the SDHB gene also had significantly worse disease-free survival compared with patients without an SDHB gene mutation (P = 0.03). CONCLUSIONS: Mutations in the SDHB gene are associated with worse disease-free survival after resection in patients with carotid body paragangliomas despite earlier intervention. This suggests that a more aggressive surgical approach is warranted in patients with SDHB mutations.

Clinical utility of chromogranin A in SDHx-related paragangliomas.

BACKGROUND: Measurement of plasma/urinary catecholamine metabolites--especially normetanephrine (NMN)--represents a gold standard in biochemical detection of succinate dehydrogenase subunit B (SDHB) and D (SDHD)-related pheochromocytomas (PHEO) and paragangliomas (PGL). This study was designed to assess diagnostic utility of chromogranin A (CgA) alone or in combination with NMN in patients with PHEO/PGL related to mutations in SDHB and SDHD. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A retrospective study of SDHB and SDHD NIH patients' cohort, which included 41 patients with SDHB mutation-related PHEO/sPGL and 18 patients with either SDHD or SDHB mutation-related head and neck PGL (HNPGL) with both CgA and NMN measured at the time of diagnosis at NIH. RESULTS: In the SDHB group, CgA showed sensitivity of 73.2% and specificity of 95.9%, while for NMN they were 70.7% and 98.6%, respectively. Elevations in CgA and NMN were complementary in 92.7% of patients with proven tumors. Both tests performed well on receiver operating characteristic curve analysis. CgA levels were elevated in 76.9% of SDHB patients and in 80% of patients with metastatic disease and normal NMN levels. CgA values in patients with HNPGL were significantly lower than in patients with PHEO/sPGL. CONCLUSION: CgA is a valuable complementary biomarker in work-up of SDHB-related PHEO/sPGL. In combination with plasma NMN, CgA further enhances tumor detection by 22.0% with minimal loss in specificity. Although non-specific for PHEO/PGL, CgA may well supplement plasma NMN to facilitate diagnostic evaluation of SDHB-related PHEO/sPGL, especially where the measurement of plasma metanephrines could otherwise be delayed by decreased availability or cost restriction.

Multi-omic analysis of SDHB-deficient pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas identifies metastasis and treatment-related molecular profiles.

Hereditary SDHB-mutant pheochromocytomas (PC) and paragangliomas (PG) are rare tumours with a high propensity to metastasize although their clinical behaviour is unpredictable. To characterize the genomic landscape of these tumours and identify metastasis biomarkers, we performed multi-omic analysis on 94 tumours from 79 patients using seven molecular methods. Sympathetic (chromaffin cell) and parasympathetic (non-chromaffin cell) PCPG had distinct molecular profiles reflecting their cell-of-origin and biochemical profile. TERT and ATRX-alterations were associated with metastatic PCPG and these tumours had an increased mutation load, and distinct transcriptional and telomeric features. Most PCPG had quiet genomes with some rare co-operative driver events observed, including EPAS1/HIF-2α mutations. Two mechanisms of acquired resistance to DNA alkylating chemotherapies were also detected - MGMT overexpression and mismatch repair-deficiency causing hypermutation. Our comprehensive multi-omic analysis of SDHB-mutant PCPG therefore identified features of metastatic disease and treatment response, expanding our understanding of these rare neuroendocrine tumours.

Recurrent Disease in Patients With Sporadic Pheochromocytoma and Paraganglioma.

CONTEXT: Long-term follow-up has been recommended for patients with pheochromocytoma or paraganglioma (PPGL) due to potential for recurrent disease. However, the need to follow patients with sporadic PPGL has recently become controversial. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the prevalence of recurrence among patients with sporadic compared with hereditary PPGL and to identify predictors of recurrence for sporadic disease. METHODS: This multicenter study included retrospective data from 1127 patients with PPGL. In addition to sex and age at primary tumor diagnosis, clinical information included location, size, and catecholamine phenotype of primary tumors, genetic test results, and subsequent development of recurrent and/or metastatic disease. Patients with sporadic PPGL were defined as those with negative genetic test results. RESULTS: Prevalence of recurrence among patients with sporadic PPGL (14.7%) was lower (P < 0.001) than for patients with pathogenic variants that activate pseudohypoxia pathways (47.5%), but similar to those with variants that activate kinase pathways (14.9%). Among patients with sporadic recurrent PPGL, 29.1% and 17.7% were respectively diagnosed at least 10 and 15 years after first diagnosis. Multivariable regression analysis showed that a noradrenergic/dopaminergic phenotype (HR 2.73; 95% CI, 1.553-4.802; P < 0.001), larger size (HR 1.82; 95% CI, 1.113-2.962; P = 0.017) and extra-adrenal location (HR 1.79; 95% CI, 1.002-3.187; P = 0.049) of primary tumors were independent predictors of recurrence in sporadic PPGL. CONCLUSION: Patients with sporadic PPGL require long-term follow-up, as supported by the 14.7% prevalence of recurrent disease, including recurrences at more than 10 years after first diagnosis. The nature of follow-up could be individualized according to tumor size, location, and biochemical phenotype.

Immune signature of pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma in context of neuroendocrine neoplasms associated with prognosis.

PURPOSE: To understand prognostic immune cell infiltration signatures in neuroendocrine neoplasms (NENs), particularly pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma (PCPG), we analyzed tumor transcriptomic data from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and other published tumor transcriptomic data of NENs. METHODS: We used CIBERSORT to infer immune cell infiltrations from bulk tumor transcriptomic data from PCPGs, in comparison to gastroenteropancreatic neuroendocrine tumors (GEPNETs) and small cell lung carcinomas (SCLCs). PCPG immune signature was validated with NanoString immune panel in an independent cohort. Unsupervised clustering of the immune infiltration scores from CIBERSORT was used to find immune clusters. A prognostic immune score model for PCPGs and the other NENs were calculated as a linear combination of the estimated infiltration of activated CD8+/CD4+ T cells, activated NK cells, and M0 and M2 macrophages. RESULTS: In PCPGs, we found five dominant immune clusters, associated with M2 macrophages, monocytes, activated NK cells, M0 macrophages and regulatory T cells, and CD8+/CD4+ T cells respectively. Non-metastatic tumors were associated with activated NK cells and metastatic tumors were associated with M0 macrophages and regulatory T cells. In GEPNETs and SCLCs, M0 macrophages and regulatory T cells were associated with unfavorable outcomes and features, such as metastasis and high-grade tumors. The prognostic immune score model for PCPGs and the NENs could predict non-aggressive and non-metastatic diseases. In PCPGs, the immune score was also an independent predictor of metastasis-free survival in a multivariate Cox regression analysis. CONCLUSION: The transcriptomic immune signature in PCPG correlates with clinical features like metastasis and prognosis.

Prediction of metastatic pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma: a machine learning modelling study using data from a cross-sectional cohort.

BACKGROUND: Pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas have up to a 20% rate of metastatic disease that cannot be reliably predicted. This study prospectively assessed whether the dopamine metabolite, methoxytyramine, might predict metastatic disease, whether predictions might be improved using machine learning models that incorporate other features, and how machine learning-based predictions compare with predictions made by specialists in the field. METHODS: In this machine learning modelling study, we used cross-sectional cohort data from the PMT trial, based in Germany, Poland, and the Netherlands, to prospectively examine the utility of methoxytyramine to predict metastatic disease in 267 patients with pheochromocytoma or paraganglioma and positive biochemical test results at initial screening. Another retrospective dataset of 493 patients with these tumors enrolled under clinical protocols at National Institutes of Health (00-CH-0093) and the Netherlands (PRESCRIPT trial) was used to train and validate machine learning models according to selections of additional features. The best performing machine learning models were then externally validated using data for all patients in the PMT trial. For comparison, 12 specialists provided predictions of metastatic disease using data from the training and external validation datasets. FINDINGS: Prospective predictions indicated that plasma methoxytyramine could identify metastatic disease at sensitivities of 52% and specificities of 85%. The best performing machine learning model was based on an ensemble tree classifier algorithm that used nine features: plasma methoxytyramine, metanephrine, normetanephrine, age, sex, previous history of pheochromocytoma or paraganglioma, location and size of primary tumours, and presence of multifocal disease. This model had an area under the receiver operating characteristic curve of 0·942 (95% CI 0·894-0·969) that was larger (p<0·0001) than that of the best performing specialist before (0·815, 0·778-0·853) and after (0·812, 0·781-0·854) provision of SDHB variant data. Sensitivity for prediction of metastatic disease in the external validation cohort reached 83% at a specificity of 92%. INTERPRETATION: Although methoxytyramine has some utility for prediction of metastatic pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas, sensitivity is limited. Predictive value is considerably enhanced with machine learning models that incorporate our nine recommended features. Our final model provides a preoperative approach to predict metastases in patients with pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas, and thereby guide individualised patient management and follow-up. FUNDING: Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft.

A long noncoding RNA-microRNA expression signature predicts metastatic signature in pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas.

PURPOSE: In hopes of discovering new markers for metastatic or aggressive phenotypes of pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PCPG), we analyzed the noncoding transcriptome from patient gene expression data in The Cancer Genome Atlas. METHODS: Differential expression of miRNAs was observed between PCPG molecular subtypes. We specifically characterized candidate miRNAs that are upregulated in pseudohypoxic PCPGs with mutations in succinate dehydrogenase complex subunits, B and/or D (SDHB and/or SDHD, respectively), which are mutations associated with unfavorable clinical outcomes. RESULTS: Our computational analysis identified four candidate miRNAs that showed elevated expression in metastatic compared to non-metastatic PCPGs: miR-182, miR-183, miR-96, and miR-383. We also found six candidate lncRNAs harboring opposite expression patterns from the miRNAs when we analyzed the expression profiles of their predicted target lncRNAs. Three of these lncRNA candidates, USP3-AS1, LINC00877, and AC009312.1, were validated to have reduced expression in metastatic compared to non-metastatic PCPGs. Finally, using univariate and multivariate analysis, we found miRNA miR-182 to be an independent predictor of metastasis-free survival in PCPGs. CONCLUSIONS: We identified candidate miRNA and lncRNAs associated with metastasis-free survival in PCPGs.

Determinants of disease-specific survival in patients with and without metastatic pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma.

BACKGROUND: Pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas (PPGLs) have a heterogeneous prognosis, the basis of which remains unclear. We, therefore, assessed disease-specific survival (DSS) and potential predictors of progressive disease in patients with PPGLs and head/neck paragangliomas (HNPGLs) according to the presence or absence of metastases. METHODS: This retrospective study included 582 patients with PPGLs and 57 with HNPGLs. DSS was assessed according to age, location and size of tumours, recurrent/metastatic disease, genetics, plasma metanephrines and methoxytyramine. RESULTS: Among all patients with PPGLs, multivariable analysis indicated that apart from older age (HR = 5.4, CI = 2.93-10.29, P < 0.0001) and presence of metastases (HR = 4.8, CI = 2.41-9.94, P < 0.0001), shorter DSS was also associated with extra-adrenal tumour location (HR = 2.6, CI = 1.32-5.23, P = 0.0007) and higher plasma methoxytyramine (HR = 1.8, CI = 1.11-2.85, P = 0.0170) and normetanephrine (HR = 1.8, CI = 1.12-2.91, P = 0.0160). Among patients with HNPGLs, those with metastases presented with longer DSS compared to patients with metastatic PPGLs (33.4 versus 20.2 years, P < 0.0001) and only plasma methoxytyramine (HR = 13, CI = 1.35-148, P = 0.0380) was an independent predictor of DSS. For patients with metastatic PPGLs, multivariable analysis revealed that apart from older age (HR = 6.2, CI = 3.20-12.20, P < 0.0001), shorter DSS was associated with the presence of synchronous metastases (HR = 4.9, CI = 2.78-8.80, P < 0.0001), higher plasma methoxytyramine (HR = 2.4, CI = 1.44-4.14, P = 0.0010) and extensive metastatic burden (HR = 2.1, CI = 1.07-3.79, P = 0.0290). CONCLUSIONS: DSS among patients with PPGLs/HNPGLs relates to several presentations of the disease that may provide prognostic markers. In particular, the independent associations of higher methoxytyramine with shorter DSS in patients with HNPGLs and metastatic PPGLs suggest the utility of this biomarker to guide individualized management and follow-up strategies in affected patients.

Vascular Changes in the Retina and Choroid of Patients With EPAS1 Gain-of-Function Mutation Syndrome.

Importance: Patients with the EPAS1 gain-of-function mutation syndrome (or Pacak-Zhuang syndrome) present with multiple paragangliomas or pheochromocytomas, duodenal somatostatinoma, polycythemia, headaches, and sometimes diminished visual acuity at an early age. The characteristic phenotype and known genetic cause of the syndrome provide an opportunity to study the role of hypoxia-inducible factor 2α (HIF-2α) in oxygen sensing, development in regions of physiologic hypoxia, and other pathological processes. Objectives: To describe the ocular lesions in EPAS1 gain-of-function mutation syndrome and to establish whether early-onset diminished visual acuity is developmental or associated with long-term physiologic sequelae of the syndrome. Design, Setting, and Participants: This clinical case series with a transgenic murine model study was conducted from July 2013 to June 2019. Participants were 3 patients referred by their primary care physicians to the National Institutes of Health for evaluation of recurrent and metastatic paragangliomas or pheochromocytomas accompanied by polycythemia. The syndrome and somatic mosaicism in patients were confirmed by the identification of gain-of-function mutations in the EPAS1 gene in resected tumors and other tissues. Main Outcomes and Measures: Ocular findings in patients with EPAS1 gain-of-function mutation syndrome. Results: A total of 3 patients (mean [SD] age, 29 [6.2] years) with confirmed ocular abnormalities were included in the study. Increased contrast accumulation at the posterior aspect of the globe was seen bilaterally on magnetic resonance imaging scans in all patients. Ophthalmoscopy images demonstrated fibrosis overlying the optic disc, tortuous and dilated retinal vessels, and retinal pigment epithelium changes. Optic disc edema and retinal exudates were also seen. Fluorescein angiography images showed leakage of dye from postcapillary venules surrounding the optic disc and highlighted aberrant retinal vascular patterns. Enhanced-depth imaging optical coherence tomography images showed substantial thickening of the choroid and dilation of choroidal vessels. The ocular features of the syndrome were confirmed with a transgenic model of mice with gain-of-function Epas1A529V mutation. Conclusions and Relevance: In this case series, HIF-2α and hypoxia signaling was found to have a role in vessel development within the choroid and retina, indicating that the marked permanent choroidal thickening and tortuous and dilated veins seen in the choroid and retina in patients with EPAS1 gain-of-function mutation syndrome were suggestive of the persistence of venous elements within the developing mesenchyme. These findings may explain other eye and vascular abnormalities whose pathogenesis remains unclear.

Clinical characteristics and outcomes of SDHB-related pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma in children and adolescents.

PURPOSE: Pheochromocytomas/paragangliomas (PHEOs/PGLs) are rare in children with only a few SDHB mutation-related cases. Previous studies on children were conducted in small cohorts. This large set of pediatric patients provides robust data in the evaluation of clinical outcomes. METHODS: Sixty-four pediatric PHEO/PGL patients with SDHB germline mutations were included in the present study. The clinical presentation, disease course, and survival rate were evaluated. RESULTS: Thirty-eight males and 26 females were diagnosed with PHEO/PGL at a median age of 13 years. The majority of patients displayed norepinephrine hypersecretion and 73.44% initially presented with a solitary tumor. Metastases developed in 70% of patients at the median age of 16 years and were mostly diagnosed first 2 years and in years 12-18 post-diagnosis. The presence of metastases at the time of diagnosis had a strong negative impact on survival in males but not in females. The estimated 5-, 10-, and 20-year survival rates were 100%, 97.14%, and 77.71%, respectively. CONCLUSION: The present report has highlighted several important aspects in the management of pediatric patients with SDHB mutations associated-PHEO/PGL. Initial diagnostic evaluation of SDHB mutation carriers should be started at age of 5-6 years with initial work-up focusing on abdominal region. Thorough follow-up is crucial first 2 years post-diagnosis and more frequent follow-ups are needed in years 10-20 post-diagnosis due to the increased risk of metastases. Although this age group developed metastasis as early as 5 years from diagnosis, we have shown that the overall 20-year prognosis and survival are good.

Malignant paraganglioma associated with succinate dehydrogenase subunit B in an 8-year-old child: the age of first screening?

Several studies have shown that patients with succinate dehydrogenase subunit B (SDHB) mutations have a very high risk for developing malignant paragangliomas. However, there is no consensus of what age screening for paragangliomas should start. We report a case of an 8-year-old white girl with a 3-year history of catecholamine excess-related complaints who was diagnosed with a malignant SDHB-associated mediastinal paraganglioma. The patient presented with intermittent sweating, headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue and weight loss that had been present since she was 5 years of age. A large posterior mediastinal mass measuring 6.4 cm x 3.1 cm x 4.6 cm was discovered on computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Laboratory data included an elevated level of urine normetanephrine of 45,400 microg/g creatinine (upper reference limit 718 microg/g) and elevated level of plasma normetanephrine of 62.4 nmol/l (upper reference limit <0.90 nmol/l). She was diagnosed with a thoracic paraganglioma and subsequently underwent surgical removal of the tumor and two lymph nodes. Histopathologic examination confirmed metastatic paraganglioma. Postoperatively, her blood pressure normalized and plasma normetanephrine levels remained normal. Our patient first presented with paraganglioma-associated signs and symptoms at the young age of 5 years. This case clearly illustrates the need for increased vigilance and screening for paragangliomas in families with SDHB at a younger age than previously thought.

The menstrual cycle: a biological marker of general health in adolescents.

Menstruation is the cyclic, orderly sloughing of the uterine lining on account of the interactions of hormones produced by the hypothalamus, pituitary, and ovaries. There is a tendency among parents and clinicians to view oligo-amenorrhea as a normal variant in the teen years. In fact, the 95th percentile for the time interval between cycles is 90 days. Thus, it is abnormal for an adolescent to be amenorrheic for greater than 3 months, even in the early gynecologic years. Identification of abnormal menstrual patterns throughout adolescence may permit early identification of potential health concerns for adulthood. Few problems in gynecologic endocrinology are as complex or challenging to the clinician as amenorrhea. However, thorough evaluation of menstrual cycle disorders in adolescence provides a window of opportunity for early diagnosis and treatment of conditions affecting the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian (HPO) axis. Here we discuss a systematic approach to the evaluation and treatment of amenorrhea in adolescents who do not have androgen excess. There is strong evidence that estrogen deficiency is a risk factor for later development of osteoporosis and hip fracture. Delay in the evaluation and treatment of disordered menses in some cases may contribute to reduced bone density. Both patients and clinicians need to view the ovary as an important endocrine organ that helps maintain health, especially bone health.

Preoperative genetic testing in pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas influences the surgical approach and the extent of adrenal surgery.

BACKGROUND: Our knowledge of the susceptibility genes for pheochromocytomas/paragangliomas has increased; however, data on its impact on surgical decision-making has not been described. The aim of this study was to determine the effect of routine preoperative genetic testing on the operative intervention in patients with pheochromocytomas/paragangliomas. METHODS: One-hundred-eight patients diagnosed with pheochromocytomas/paragangliomas who underwent 118 operations had preoperative genetic testing for 9 known pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma susceptibility genes. A retrospective analysis of a prospective database was performed to evaluate clinical factors associated with the surgical approach selected and the outcome of the surgical intervention. RESULTS: In 51 patients (47%), a germline mutation was detected and one-third had no family history of pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma. In 77 operations (65%), it was the first operative intervention for the disease site (60 laparoscopic, 17 open), and 41 (35%) were reoperative interventions (36 open, 5 laparoscopic). For initial operations, variables associated with whether an open or laparoscopic approach was used were tumor size (P = .009) and presence of germline mutation (P = .042). Sixty-eight adrenal operations were performed (54 total, 14 cortical-sparing). Variables significantly associated with a cortical-sparing adrenalectomy being performed were the presence of germline mutation (P = .006) and tumor size (P = .013). CONCLUSION: Preoperative knowledge of the germline mutation status affects the surgical approach and extent of adrenalectomy.

SDHB mutation status and tumor size but not tumor grade are important predictors of clinical outcome in pheochromocytoma and abdominal paraganglioma.

BACKGROUND: A staging/prognostic system has long been desired to better categorize pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma which can be very aggressive in the setting of SDHB mutations. METHODS: A retrospective analysis was conducted of clinical characteristics and outcomes including results of genetic testing, tumor recurrence/metastasis, Ki67/MIB1% staining, and tumor mitotic index in patients with pheochromocytoma/paraganglioma. RESULTS: Patients with SDHB mutation presented at younger age (33.0 years old vs 49.6 years old, P < .001), had increased local recurrence and distant metastases (47.6% vs 9.1%, P < .001, and 56.3% vs 9.1%, P < .001, respectively), and lesser median disease-free interval (89.8 months, 95% confidence interval 36.0-96.4 vs not reached, P < .001). SDHB mutation, greatest tumor diameter, and open operative resection were associated with a greater rate of local recurrence and distant metastases (P < .006 each). SDHB mutation and tumor diameter were independent risk factors for local recurrence (P ≤ .04 each) and metastases. Ki67% and mitotic index were not associated with SDHB mutation (P ≥ .09 each), local recurrence (P = .48, P = .066, respectively), metastases (P ≥ .22 each), or disease-free interval (P ≥ .19 each). CONCLUSION: SDHB status and primary tumor size are more predictive of patient outcome than Ki67% or mitotic index and should be part of any clinically relevant, prognostic scoring system.

Pediatric patients with pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma should have routine preoperative genetic testing for common susceptibility genes in addition to imaging to detect extra-adrenal and metastatic tumors.

BACKGROUND: Pediatric pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas are rare with limited data on the optimal management approach. The aim of this study was to determine the role of genetic testing and imaging to detect extra-adrenal and/or metastatic tumors in pediatric pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas. METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of 55 patients diagnosed at ≤21 years of age with pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas with analysis of data on genetic testing and multimodal imaging. RESULTS: Eighty percent of patients (n = 44/55) had a germline mutation. The majority were found to have either VHL (38%) or SDHB (25%) mutation. Pheochromocytoma was present in 67% (n = 37/55) of patients and was bilateral in 51% (n = 19/37). The majority of patients with bilateral pheochromocytomas had VHL (79%). Abdominal paragangliomas was present in 22% (n = 12/55), head and neck paragangliomas in 11% (n = 6/55), and thoracic paragangliomas in 2 of 55 patients. For paragangliomas, SDHx accounted for 72% (n = 13/18) of mutations. The rate of malignancy was 16% (n = 9/55), 56% of whom had SDHB mutations. In two-thirds of patients, functional imaging identified either extra-adrenal paragangliomas and/or metastatic disease. CONCLUSION: The majority of pediatric patients with pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas have detectable germline mutations. Therefore, we suggest strongly that all pediatric patients with pheochromocytomas and paragangliomas undergo genetic testing and imaging to detect extra-adrenal paragangliomas and metastatic disease to guide treatment and follow-up.