Transformation scenarios towards multifunctional landscapes: A multi-criteria land-use allocation model applied to Jambi Province, Indonesia.

In tropical regions, shifting from forests and traditional agroforestry to intensive plantations generates conflicts between human welfare (farmers' demands and societal needs) and environmental protection. Achieving sustainability in this transformation will inevitably involve trade-offs between multiple ecological and socioeconomic functions. To address these trade-offs, our study used a new methodological approach allowing the identification of transformation scenarios, including theoretical landscape compositions that satisfy multiple ecological functions (i.e., structural complexity, microclimatic conditions, organic carbon in plant biomass, soil organic carbon and nutrient leaching losses), and farmers needs (i.e., labor and input requirements, total income to land, and return to land and labor) while accounting for the uncertain provision of these functions and having an actual potential for adoption by farmers. We combined a robust, multi-objective optimization approach with an iterative search algorithm allowing the identification of ecological and socioeconomic functions that best explain current land-use decisions. The model then optimized the theoretical land-use composition that satisfied multiple ecological and socioeconomic functions. Between these ends, we simulated transformation scenarios reflecting the transition from current land-use composition towards a normative multifunctional optimum. These transformation scenarios involve increasing the number of optimized socioeconomic or ecological functions, leading to higher functional richness (i.e., number of functions). We applied this method to smallholder farms in the Jambi Province, Indonesia, where traditional rubber agroforestry, rubber plantations, and oil palm plantations are the main land-use systems. Given the currently practiced land-use systems, our study revealed short-term returns to land as the principal factor in explaining current land-use decisions. Fostering an alternative composition that satisfies additional socioeconomic functions would require minor changes ("low-hanging fruits"). However, satisfying even a single ecological indicator (e.g., reduction of nutrient leaching losses) would demand substantial changes in the current land-use composition ("moonshot"). This would inevitably lead to a profit decline, underscoring the need for incentives if the societal goal is to establish multifunctional agricultural landscapes. With many oil palm plantations nearing the end of their production cycles in the Jambi province, there is a unique window of opportunity to transform agricultural landscapes.

How well do different dietary and nutrition assessment tools match? Insights from rural Kenya.

OBJECTIVE: Various indicators and assessment tools exist to measure diets and nutrition. Most studies eventually rely on one approach. Relatively little is known about how closely results match when different tools are used in the same context. The present study compares and correlates different indicators for the same households and individuals to better understand which indicators can be used as proxies for others. DESIGN: A survey of households and individuals was carried out in Kenya in 2015. Seven-day food consumption and 24 h dietary recalls were administered at household and individual level, respectively. Individual height and weight measures were taken. Different indicators of food access (energy consumption, household dietary diversity scores), dietary quality (individual dietary diversity scores, micronutrient intakes) and nutrition (anthropometric indicators) were calculated and correlated to evaluate associations. SETTING: Rural farm households in western Kenya.ParticipantsData collected from 809 households and 1556 individuals living in these households (782 female adults, 479 male adults, 295 children aged 6-59 months). RESULTS: All measures of food access and dietary quality were positively correlated at individual level. Household-level and individual-level dietary indicators were also positively correlated. Correlations between dietary indicators and anthropometric measures were small and mostly statistically insignificant. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary indicators from 7d food consumption recalls at the household level can be used as proxies of individual dietary quality of children and male and female adults. Individual dietary diversity scores are good proxies of micronutrient intakes. However, neither household-level nor individual-level dietary indicators are good proxies of individual nutritional status in this setting.

Various forms of double burden of malnutrition problems exist in rural Kenya.

BACKGROUND: The coexistence of overweight/obesity and undernutrition is often referred to as the double burden of malnutrition (DB). DB was shown to exist in many developing countries, especially in urban areas. Much less is known about DB in rural areas of developing countries. Also, the exact definition of DB varies between studies, making comparison difficult. The objective of this study is to analyse DB problems in rural Kenya, using and comparing different DB definitions and measurement approaches. METHODS: Food intake and anthropometric data were collected from 874 male and female adults and 184 children (< 5 years) through a cross-section survey in rural areas of Western Kenya. DB at the individual level is defined as a person suffering simultaneously from overweight/obesity and micronutrient deficiency or stunting. DB at the household level is defined as an overweight/obese adult and an undernourished child living in the same household, using underweight, stunting, wasting, and micronutrient deficiency as indicators of child undernutrition. RESULTS: DB at the individual level is found in 19% of the adults, but only in 1% of the children. DB at the household level is relatively low (1-3%) when using wasting or underweight as indicators of child undernutrition, but much higher (13-17%) when using stunting or micronutrient deficiency as indicators. CONCLUSION: Various forms of DB problems exist in rural Kenya at household and individual levels. Prevalence rates depend on how exactly DB is defined and measured. The rise of overweight and obesity, even in rural areas, and their coexistence with different forms of undernutrition are challenges for food and nutrition policies.

Production diversity and dietary diversity in smallholder farm households.

Undernutrition and micronutrient malnutrition remain problems of significant magnitude in large parts of the developing world. Improved nutrition requires not only better access to food for poor population segments, but also higher dietary quality and diversity. Because many of the poor and undernourished people are smallholder farmers, diversifying production on these smallholder farms is widely perceived as a useful approach to improve dietary diversity. However, empirical evidence on the link between production and consumption diversity is scarce. Here, this issue is addressed with household-level data from Indonesia, Kenya, Ethiopia, and Malawi. Regression models show that on-farm production diversity is positively associated with dietary diversity in some situations, but not in all. When production diversity is already high, the association is not significant or even turns negative, because of foregone income benefits from specialization. Analysis of other factors reveals that market access has positive effects on dietary diversity, which are larger than those of increased production diversity. Market transactions also tend to reduce the role of farm diversity for household nutrition. These results suggest that increasing on-farm diversity is not always the most effective way to improve dietary diversity in smallholder households and should not be considered a goal in itself. Additional research is needed to better understand how agriculture and food systems can be made more nutrition-sensitive in particular situations.

Farm production, market access and dietary diversity in Malawi.

OBJECTIVE: The association between farm production diversity and dietary diversity in rural smallholder households was recently analysed. Most existing studies build on household-level dietary diversity indicators calculated from 7d food consumption recalls. Herein, this association is revisited with individual-level 24 h recall data. The robustness of the results is tested by comparing household- and individual-level estimates. The role of other factors that may influence dietary diversity, such as market access and agricultural technology, is also analysed. DESIGN: A survey of smallholder farm households was carried out in Malawi in 2014. Dietary diversity scores are calculated from 24 h recall data. Production diversity scores are calculated from farm production data covering a period of 12 months. Individual- and household-level regression models are developed and estimated. SETTING: Data were collected in sixteen districts of central and southern Malawi. SUBJECTS: Smallholder farm households (n 408), young children (n 519) and mothers (n 408). RESULTS: Farm production diversity is positively associated with dietary diversity. However, the estimated effects are small. Access to markets for buying food and selling farm produce and use of chemical fertilizers are shown to be more important for dietary diversity than diverse farm production. Results with household- and individual-level dietary data are very similar. CONCLUSIONS: Further increasing production diversity may not be the most effective strategy to improve diets in smallholder farm households. Improving access to markets, productivity-enhancing inputs and technologies seems to be more promising.

Maternal nutrition knowledge and child nutritional outcomes in urban Kenya.

We examine the link between maternal nutrition knowledge and nutritional outcomes of children and adolescents (5-18 years) measured in terms of height-for-age Z-scores (HAZ). One particular focus is on the role of different types of nutrition knowledge. The analysis builds on household-level and individual-level data collected in urban Kenya in 2012 and 2015. Various regression models are developed and estimated. Results show that maternal nutrition knowledge - measured through an aggregate knowledge score - is positively associated with child HAZ, even after controlling for other influencing factors such as household living standard and general maternal education. However, disaggregation by type of knowledge reveals important differences. Maternal knowledge about food ingredients only has a weak positive association with child HAZ. For maternal knowledge about specific dietary recommendations, no significant association is detected. The strongest positive association with child HAZ is found for maternal knowledge about the health consequences of not following recommended dietary practices. These findings have direct relevance for nutrition and health policies, especially for designing the contents of educational campaigns and training programs.

Do supermarkets contribute to the obesity pandemic in developing countries?

OBJECTIVE: Many developing countries are undergoing a nutrition transition with rising rates of overweight and obesity. This nutrition transition coincides with a rapid expansion of supermarkets. The objective of the present research is to study whether supermarkets directly contribute to overweight and other changes in nutritional status. DESIGN: This research builds on cross-sectional observational data. Household- and individual-level data were collected in Kenya using a quasi-experimental survey design. Instrumental variable regressions were employed to analyse the impact of supermarket purchase on nutritional status. Causal chain models were estimated to examine pathways through which supermarkets affect nutrition. SETTING: Small towns in Central Province of Kenya with and without supermarkets. SUBJECTS: A total of 615 adults and 216 children and adolescents. RESULTS: Controlling for other factors, buying in a supermarket is associated with a significantly higher BMI (P=0·018) and a higher probability of overweight (P=0·057) among adults. This effect is not observed for children and adolescents. Instead, buying in a supermarket seems to reduce child undernutrition measured by height-for-age Z-score (P=0·017). Impacts of supermarkets depend on many factors including people's initial nutritional status. For both adults and children, the nutrition effects occur through higher food energy consumption and changes in dietary composition. CONCLUSIONS: Supermarkets and their food sales strategies contribute to changing food consumption habits and nutritional outcomes. Yet the types of outcomes differ by age cohort and initial nutritional status. Simple conclusions on whether supermarkets are good or bad for nutrition and public health are not justified.

Economic impacts and impact dynamics of Bt (Bacillus thuringiensis) cotton in India.

Despite widespread adoption of genetically modified crops in many countries, heated controversies about their advantages and disadvantages continue. Especially for developing countries, there are concerns that genetically modified crops fail to benefit smallholder farmers and contribute to social and economic hardship. Many economic studies contradict this view, but most of them look at short-term impacts only, so that uncertainty about longer-term effects prevails. We address this shortcoming by analyzing economic impacts and impact dynamics of Bt cotton in India. Building on unique panel data collected between 2002 and 2008, and controlling for nonrandom selection bias in technology adoption, we show that Bt has caused a 24% increase in cotton yield per acre through reduced pest damage and a 50% gain in cotton profit among smallholders. These benefits are stable; there are even indications that they have increased over time. We further show that Bt cotton adoption has raised consumption expenditures, a common measure of household living standard, by 18% during the 2006-2008 period. We conclude that Bt cotton has created large and sustainable benefits, which contribute to positive economic and social development in India.

Positive public attitudes towards agricultural robots.

Robot technologies could lead to radical changes in farming. But what does the public know and think about agricultural robots? Recent experience with other agricultural technologies-such as plant genetic engineering-shows that public perceptions can influence the pace and direction of innovation, so understanding perceptions and how they are formed is important. Here, we use representative data from an online survey (n = 2269) to analyze public attitudes towards crop farming robots in Germany-a country where new farming technologies are sometimes seen with skepticism. While less than half of the survey participants are aware of the use of robots in agriculture, general attitudes are mostly positive and the level of interest is high. A framing experiment suggests that the type of information provided influences attitudes. Information about possible environmental benefits increases positive perceptions more than information about possible food security and labor market effects. These insights can help design communication strategies to promote technology acceptance and sustainable innovation in agriculture.

Joint environmental and social benefits from diversified agriculture.

Agricultural simplification continues to expand at the expense of more diverse forms of agriculture. This simplification, for example, in the form of intensively managed monocultures, poses a risk to keeping the world within safe and just Earth system boundaries. Here, we estimated how agricultural diversification simultaneously affects social and environmental outcomes. Drawing from 24 studies in 11 countries across 2655 farms, we show how five diversification strategies focusing on livestock, crops, soils, noncrop plantings, and water conservation benefit social (e.g., human well-being, yields, and food security) and environmental (e.g., biodiversity, ecosystem services, and reduced environmental externalities) outcomes. We found that applying multiple diversification strategies creates more positive outcomes than individual management strategies alone. To realize these benefits, well-designed policies are needed to incentivize the adoption of multiple diversification strategies in unison.

Obesity trends and determinants in Indonesia.

Obesity is becoming a serious issue in many developing countries, with negative implications for economic growth and human wellbeing. While previous micro level studies on obesity have mostly used cross-section data, we analyze trends and determinants with panel data from Indonesia. Over the past 20 years, obesity has increased remarkably in Indonesia across all population groups, including rural and low income strata. The problem is particularly severe among women. Panel regressions confirm that changing food consumption patterns, coupled with decreasing physical activity, directly contribute to this trend. From a policy perspective, nutrition awareness and education campaigns, combined with programs to support leisure time exercise especially for women, seem to be most promising to contain the obesity pandemic.

Cost analysis of community-based daily and weekly programs for treatment of moderate and mild wasting among children on Nias Island, Indonesia.

BACKGROUND: Ready-to-use food in the form of biscuits (RUF-Nias biscuit) was locally produced for rehabilitation of moderately and mildly wasted (weight-for-height z-score > or = -3 to < -1.5 SD) children on Nias Island, Indonesia. Daily programs were performed in semiurban settings, and weekly programs took place in rural areas. OBJECTIVE: To analyze the cost of daily and weekly distribution and supervision of RUF-Nias biscuit programs. METHODS: The costs of the daily and weekly programs were derived from the financial report and interviews with program implementers and participating households. Costs were calculated on the basis of total rehabilitation costs per child per day required to achieve a target weight-for-height z-score > or = -1.5 SD in daily and weekly programs. RESULTS: Institutional costs to the implementing organization were similar for both programs (approximately US $4 per child per day). The daily programs resulted in a significantly higher proportion of recovered children (78.6% vs. 65.4%) and higher weight gain (3.7 vs. 2.2 g/kg/day) than the weekly programs. About 6% to 7% of the total cost of the programs was accounted for by locally produced RUF-Nias biscuits. The social cost borne by the community for the weekly programs was about half that for the daily programs. CONCLUSIONS: The daily programs achieved better results for the implementing organization than the weekly programs; however, the weekly programs were preferred by the community because of the lower time constraints and the lower opportunity cost of time. The willingness of community and household members to invest their time in more intensive activities in the daily programs led to better program outcomes.

Mobile phones, women's physical mobility, and contraceptive use in India.

Women's economic and social empowerment is facilitated by their ability to move around independently and safely. However, in many developing countries women's physical mobility is restricted by social norms, structural impediments related to poor quality of roads and transport systems, and security issues. Restrictions on female physical mobility and low levels of empowerment can also have negative implications for women's access to healthcare services. Mobile phones could help connect women to information and social networks and thus also strengthen their bargaining power within the household. Here, we use nationally representative data from 39,523 women in India collected in 2011-12 to analyse associations between women's use of mobile phones and selected indicators of female autonomy and empowerment. Results indicate that women's mobile phone use is positively associated with their physical mobility range and use of non-surgical contraceptives, whereas it is negatively associated with surgical contraceptive methods. We also analyse to what extent these associations are influenced by other socioeconomic and cultural factors. Our findings suggest that mobile phones can play an important positive role for women's empowerment in India.

Genetically modified crops support climate change mitigation.

Genetically modified (GM) crops can help reduce agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. In addition to possible decreases in production emissions, GM yield gains also mitigate land-use change and related emissions. Wider adoption of already-existing GM crops in Europe could result in a reduction equivalent to 7.5% of the total agricultural GHG emissions of Europe.

Farm-level production diversity and child and adolescent nutrition in rural sub-Saharan Africa: a multicountry, longitudinal study.

BACKGROUND: Child malnutrition remains widespread in sub-Saharan Africa, especially in rural areas where many households are involved in subsistence farming. Increasing farm-level production diversity (FPD) is often considered a useful strategy to improve child diets and nutrition, but the empirical evidence is mixed. Most studies have investigated associations between FPD and dietary diversity. We therefore aimed to analyse associations between FPD and child and adolescent nutritional status. METHODS: In this multicountry, longitudinal study, we used representative panel data from four countries in sub-Saharan Africa (Ethiopia, Malawi, Tanzania, and Uganda) to test the hypothesis that higher FPD is positively associated with child and adolescent nutritional status. The data were from the Living Standards Measurement Study-Integrated Surveys on Agriculture collected between 2008 and 2019. We included data from all children and adolescents aged 0-18 years with available anthropometric data who were living in households involved in farming activities for home consumption, market sales, or both. FPD was measured in terms of the number of different crop and livestock species and food groups produced on each farm. Child and adolescent nutritional status was measured in terms of height-for-age Z scores (HAZ). We estimated panel data regression models with correlated random effects to control for confounding factors and time-invariant unobserved heterogeneity. FINDINGS: The total sample size included 50 689 child and adolescent observations. In combined models, with data from all countries included, we found one additional species produced on the farm (crop and livestock combined) was associated with a mean 0·015 SD greater child or adolescent HAZ (p<0·0001). The role of FPD tended to decrease with better market access (in more remote locations mean 0·020 SD [p<0·0001] and in less remote locations mean 0·008 SD [p=0·091]). In individual-country models, the effects were smaller and statistically insignificant in three of the four countries. Livestock diversity had larger positive associations with HAZ than crop diversity (livestock diversity effect on HAZ mean 0·085 SD [p<0·0001] and crop diversity effect on HAZ mean 0·007 SD [p=0·080]). In Tanzania and Uganda, higher crop diversity was negatively associated with child and adolescent HAZ. INTERPRETATION: Our findings suggest that further farm-level diversification is not a suitable general strategy to improve child and adolescent nutrition but might be useful in some situations. Livestock production seems to be conducive for improving child and adolescent nutrition on average. Context-specific approaches need to be developed. FUNDING: None.

Personalized digital extension services and agricultural performance: Evidence from smallholder farmers in India.

Productivity growth in smallholder agriculture is an important driver of rural economic development and poverty reduction. However, smallholder farmers often have limited access to information, which can be a serious constraint for increasing productivity. One potential mechanism to reduce information constraints is the public agricultural extension service, but its effectiveness has often been low in the past. Digital technologies could enhance the effectiveness of extension by reducing outreach costs and helping to better tailor the information to farmers' individual needs and conditions. Using primary data from India, this study analyses the association between digital extension services and smallholder agricultural performance. The digital extension services that some of the farmers use provide personalized information on the types of crops to grow, the types and quantities of inputs to use, and other methods of cultivation. Problems of selection bias in the impact evaluation are reduced through propensity score matching (PSM) combined with estimates of farmers' willingness to pay for digital extension. Results show that use of personalized digital extension services is positively and significantly associated with input intensity, production diversity, crop productivity, and crop income.

Sustainability standards in global agrifood supply chains.

Agrifood supply chains contribute to many environmental and social problems. Sustainability standards-rules that supply chain actors may follow to demonstrate their commitment to social equity and/or environmental protection-aim to mitigate such problems. We provide a narrative review of the effects of many distinct sustainability standards on different supply chain actors spanning multiple crops. Furthermore, we discuss five emerging questions-causality, exclusion, compliance and monitoring, excess supply and emerging country markets-and identify directions for future research. We find that, while sustainability standards can help improve the sustainability of production processes in certain situations, they are insufficient to ensure food system sustainability at scale, nor do they advance equity objectives in agrifood supply chains.