Interactive Mechanisms of Supraspinal Sites of Opioid Analgesic Action: A Festschrift to Dr. Gavril W. Pasternak.

Almost a half century of research has elaborated the discoveries of the central mechanisms governing the analgesic responses of opiates, including their receptors, endogenous peptides, genes and their putative spinal and supraspinal sites of action. One of the central tenets of "gate-control theories of pain" was the activation of descending supraspinal sites by opiate drugs and opioid peptides thereby controlling further noxious input. This review in the Special Issue dedicated to the research of Dr. Gavril Pasternak indicates his contributions to the understanding of supraspinal mediation of opioid analgesic action within the context of the large body of work over this period. This review will examine (a) the relevant supraspinal sites mediating opioid analgesia, (b) the opioid receptor subtypes and opioid peptides involved, (c) supraspinal site analgesic interactions and their underlying neurophysiology, (d) molecular (particularly AS) tools identifying opioid receptor actions, and (e) relevant physiological variables affecting site-specific opioid analgesia. This review will build on classic initial studies, specify the contributions that Gavril Pasternak and his colleagues did in this specific area, and follow through with studies up to the present.

Truncated mu opioid GPCR variant involvement in opioid-dependent and opioid-independent pain modulatory systems within the CNS.

The clinical management of severe pain depends heavily on opioids acting through mu opioid receptors encoded by the Oprm1 gene, which undergoes extensive alternative splicing. In addition to generating a series of prototypic seven transmembrane domain (7TM) G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), Oprm1 also produces a set of truncated splice variants containing only six transmembrane domains (6TM) through which selected opioids such as IBNtxA (3'-iodobenzoyl-6ß-naltrexamide) mediate a potent analgesia without many undesirable effects. Although morphine analgesia is independent of these 6TM mu receptor isoforms, we now show that the selective loss of the 6TM variants in a knockout model eliminates the analgesic actions of delta and kappa opioids and of α2-adrenergic compounds, but not cannabinoid, neurotensin, or muscarinic drugs. These observations were confirmed by using antisense paradigms. Despite their role in analgesia, loss of the 6TM variants were not involved with delta opioid-induced seizure activity, aversion to the kappa drug U50, 488H, or α2-mediated hypolocomotion. These observations support the existence of parallel opioid and nonopioid pain modulatory systems and highlight the ability to dissociate unwanted delta, kappa1, and α2 actions from analgesia.

Truncated µ-Opioid Receptors With 6 Transmembrane Domains Are Essential for Opioid Analgesia.

BACKGROUND: Most clinical opioids act through µ-opioid receptors. They effectively relieve pain but are limited by side effects, such as constipation, respiratory depression, dependence, and addiction. Many efforts have been made toward developing potent analgesics that lack side effects. Three-iodobenzoyl-6ß-naltrexamide (IBNtxA) is a novel class of opioid active against thermal, inflammatory, and neuropathic pain, without respiratory depression, physical dependence, and reward behavior. The µ-opioid receptor (OPRM1) gene undergoes extensive alternative precursor messenger ribonucleic acid splicing, generating multiple splice variants that are conserved from rodents to humans. One type of variant is the exon 11 (E11)-associated truncated variant containing 6 transmembrane domains (6TM variant). There are 5 6TM variants in the mouse OPRM1 gene, including mMOR-1G, mMOR-1M, mMOR-1N, mMOR-1K, and mMOR-1L. Gene-targeting mouse models selectively removing 6TM variants in E11 knockout (KO) mice eliminated IBNtxA analgesia without affecting morphine analgesia. Conversely, morphine analgesia is lost in an exon 1 (E1) KO mouse that lacks all 7 transmembrane (7TM) variants but retains 6TM variant expression, while IBNtxA analgesia remains intact. Elimination of both E1 and E11 in an E1/E11 double KO mice abolishes both morphine and IBNtxA analgesia. Reconstituting expression of the 6TM variant mMOR-1G in E1/E11 KO mice through lentiviral expression rescued IBNtxA but not morphine analgesia. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of lentiviral expression of the other 6TM variants in E1/E11 KO mice on IBNtxA analgesia. METHODS: Lentiviruses expressing 6TM variants were packaged in HEK293T cells, concentrated by ultracentrifugation, and intrathecally administered 3 times. Opioid analgesia was determined using a radiant-heat tail-flick assay. Expression of lentiviral 6TM variant messenger ribonucleic acids was examined by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) or quantitative PCR. RESULTS: All the 6TM variants restored IBNtxA analgesia in the E1/E11 KO mouse, while morphine remained inactive. Expression of lentiviral 6TM variants was confirmed by PCR or quantitative PCR. IBNtxA median effective dose values determined from cumulative dose-response studies in the rescued mice were indistinguishable from wild-type animals. IBNtxA analgesia was maintained for up to 33 weeks in the rescue mice and was readily antagonized by the opioid antagonist levallorphan. CONCLUSIONS: Our study demonstrated the pharmacological relevance of mouse 6TM variants in IBNtxA analgesia and established that a common functional core of the receptors corresponding to the transmembrane domains encoded by exons 2 and 3 is sufficient for activity. Thus, 6TM variants offer potential therapeutic targets for a distinct class of analgesics that are effective against broad-spectrum pain models without many side effects associated with traditional opioids.

Stabilization of morphine tolerance with long-term dosing: association with selective upregulation of mu-opioid receptor splice variant mRNAs.

Chronic morphine administration is associated with the development of tolerance, both clinically and in animal models. Many assume that tolerance is a continually progressive response to chronic opioid dosing. However, clinicians have long appreciated the ability to manage cancer pain in patients for months on stable opioid doses, implying that extended dosing may eventually result in a steady state in which the degree of tolerance remains constant despite the continued administration of a fixed morphine dose. Preclinical animal studies have used short-term paradigms, typically a week or less, whereas the clinical experience is based upon months of treatment. Chronic administration of different fixed morphine doses produced a progressive increase in the ED50 that peaked at 3 wk in mice, consistent with prior results at shorter times. Continued morphine dosing beyond 3 wk revealed stabilization of the level of tolerance for up to 6 wk with no further increase in the ED50. The degree of tolerance at all time points was dependent upon the dose of morphine. The mRNA levels for the various mu opioid receptor splice variants were assessed to determine whether stabilization of morphine tolerance was associated with changes in their levels. After 6 wk of treatment, mRNA levels of the variants increased as much as 300-fold for selected variants in specific brain regions. These findings reconcile preclinical and clinical observations regarding the development of morphine tolerance.

Stabilization of the µ-opioid receptor by truncated single transmembrane splice variants through a chaperone-like action.

The µ-opioid receptor gene, OPRM1, undergoes extensive alternative pre-mRNA splicing, as illustrated by the identification of an array of splice variants generated by both 5' and 3' alternative splicing. The current study reports the identification of another set of splice variants conserved across species that are generated through exon skipping or insertion that encodes proteins containing only a single transmembrane (TM) domain. Using a Tet-Off system, we demonstrated that the truncated single TM variants can dimerize with the full-length 7-TM µ-opioid receptor (MOR-1) in the endoplasmic reticulum, leading to increased expression of MOR-1 at the protein level by a chaperone-like function that minimizes endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation. In vivo antisense studies suggested that the single TM variants play an important role in morphine analgesia, presumably through modulation of receptor expression levels. Our studies suggest the functional roles of truncated receptors in other G protein-coupled receptor families.

Involvement of exon 11-associated variants of the mu opioid receptor MOR-1 in heroin, but not morphine, actions.

Heroin remains a major drug of abuse and is preferred by addicts over morphine. Like morphine, heroin has high affinity and selectivity for mu-receptors, but its residual analgesia in exon 1 MOR-1 knockout mice that do not respond to morphine suggests a different mechanism of action. MOR-1 splice variants lacking exon 1 have been observed in mice, humans, and rats, raising the possibility that they might be responsible for the residual heroin and morphine-6beta-glucuronide (M6G) analgesia in the exon 1 knockout mice. To test this possibility, we disrupted exon 11 of MOR-1, which eliminates all of the variants that do not contain exon 1. Morphine and methadone analgesia in the exon 11 knockout mouse was normal, but the analgesic actions of heroin, M6G, and fentanyl were markedly diminished in the radiant heat tail-flick and hot-plate assays. Similarly, the ability of M6G to inhibit gastrointestinal transit was greatly diminished in these exon 11 knockout mice, whereas the ability of morphine was unchanged. These findings identify receptors selectively involved with heroin and M6G actions and confirm the relevance of the exon 11-associated variants and raise important issues regarding the importance of atypical truncated G-protein-coupled receptors.

Identification and characterization of seven new exon 11-associated splice variants of the rat µ opioid receptor gene, OPRM1.

BACKGROUND: The mouse mu opioid receptor (OPRM1) gene undergoes extensive alternative splicing at both the 3'- and 5'-ends of the gene. Previously, several C-terminal variants generated through 3' splicing have been identified in the rat OPRM1 gene. In both mice and humans 5' splicing generates a number of exon 11-containing variants. Studies in an exon 11 knockout mouse suggest the functional importance of these exon 11-associated variants in mediating the analgesic actions of a subset of mu opioids, including morphine-6ß-glucuronide (M6G) and heroin, but not others such as morphine and methadone. We now have examined 5' splicing in the rat. RESULTS: The current studies identified in the rat a homologous exon 11 and seven exon 11-associated variants, suggesting conservation of exon 11 and its associated variants among mouse, rat and human. RT-PCR revealed marked differences in the expression of these variants across several brain regions, implying region-specific mRNA processing of the exon 11-associated variants. Of the seven rat exon 11-associated variants, four encoded the identical protein as found in rMOR-1, two predicted 6 TM variants, and one, rMOR-1H2, generated a novel N-terminal variant in which a stretch of an additional 50 amino acids was present at the N-terminus of the previously established rMOR-1 sequence. When expressed in CHO cells, the presence of the additional 50 amino acids in rMOR-1H2 significantly altered agonist-induced G protein activation with little effect on opioid binding. CONCLUSION: The identification of the rat exon 11 and its associated variants further demonstrated conservation of 5' splicing in OPRM1 genes among rodents and humans. The functional relevance of these exon 11 associated variants was suggested by the region-specific expression of their mRNAs and the influence of the N-terminal sequence on agonist-induced G protein coupling in the novel N-terminal variant, rMOR-1H2. The importance of the exon 11-associated variants in mice in M6G and heroin analgesia revealed in the exon 11 knockout mouse implies that these analogous rat variants may also play similar roles in rat. The complexity created by alternative splicing of the rat OPRM1 gene may provide important insights of understanding the diverse responses to the various µ opioids seen in rats.

Systemically and topically active antinociceptive neurotensin compounds.

Neurotensin is a neurotransmitter/modulator with a wide range of actions. Using a series of 10 stable analogs, we have examined neurotensin antinociception in mice. By incorporating (2S)-2-amino-3-(1H-4-indoyl)propanoic acid (l-neoTrp), a series of neurotensin analogs have been synthesized that are stable in serum and are systemically active in vivo. When administered in mice, they all were antinociceptive in the radiant heat tail-flick assay. Time-action curves revealed a peak effect at 30 min and a duration of action ranging from 2 to 4 h. Dose-response curves revealed that two compounds were partial agonists with maximal responses below 75%, whereas all of the remaining compounds displayed a full response. Overall, the compounds were quite potent, with ED(50) values similar to those of opioids. At peak effect, the ED(50) values ranged from 0.91 to 9.7 mg/kg s.c. Two of the analogs were active topically. Together, these studies support the potential of neurotensin analogs as analgesics. They are active systemically and by using them topically, it may be possible to avoid problematic side effects, such as hypothermia and hypotension.

Alternatively spliced mu opioid receptor C termini impact the diverse actions of morphine.

Extensive 3' alternative splicing of the mu opioid receptor gene OPRM1 creates multiple C-terminal splice variants. However, their behavioral relevance remains unknown. The present study generated 3 mutant mouse models with truncated C termini in 2 different mouse strains, C57BL/6J (B6) and 129/SvEv (129). One mouse truncated all C termini downstream of Oprm1 exon 3 (mE3M mice), while the other two selectively truncated C-terminal tails encoded by either exon 4 (mE4M mice) or exon 7 (mE7M mice). Studies of these mice revealed divergent roles for the C termini in morphine-induced behaviors, highlighting the importance of C-terminal variants in complex morphine actions. In mE7M-B6 mice, the exon 7-associated truncation diminished morphine tolerance and reward without altering physical dependence, whereas the exon 4-associated truncation in mE4M-B6 mice facilitated morphine tolerance and reduced morphine dependence without affecting morphine reward. mE7M-B6 mutant mice lost morphine-induced receptor desensitization in the brain stem and hypothalamus, consistent with exon 7 involvement in morphine tolerance. In cell-based studies, exon 7-associated variants shifted the bias of several mu opioids toward ß-arrestin 2 over G protein activation compared with the exon 4-associated variant, suggesting an interaction of exon 7-associated C-terminal tails with ß-arrestin 2 in morphine-induced desensitization and tolerance. Together, the differential effects of C-terminal truncation illustrate the pharmacological importance of OPRM1 3' alternative splicing.

Mediation of opioid analgesia by a truncated 6-transmembrane GPCR.

The generation of potent opioid analgesics that lack the side effects of traditional opioids may be possible by targeting truncated splice variants of the µ-opioid receptor. µ-Opioids act through GPCRs that are generated from the Oprm1 gene, which undergoes extensive alternative splicing. The most abundant set of Oprm1 variants encode classical full-length 7 transmembrane domain (7TM) µ-opioid receptors that mediate the actions of the traditional µ-opioid drugs morphine and methadone. In contrast, 3-iodobenzoyl-6ß-naltrexamide (IBNtxA) is a potent analgesic against thermal, inflammatory, and neuropathic pain that acts independently of 7TM µ-opioid receptors but has no activity in mice lacking a set of 6TM truncated µ-opioid receptor splice variants. Unlike traditional opioids, IBNtxA does not depress respiration or result in physical dependence or reward behavior, suggesting it acts through an alternative µ-opioid receptor target. Here we demonstrated that a truncated 6TM splice variant, mMOR-1G, can rescue IBNtxA analgesia in a µ-opioid receptor-deficient mouse that lacks all Oprm1 splice variants, ablating µ-opioid activity in these animals. Intrathecal administration of lentivirus containing the 6TM variant mMOR-1G restored IBNtxA, but not morphine, analgesia in Oprm1-deficient animals. Together, these results confirm that a truncated 6TM GPCR is both necessary and sufficient for IBNtxA analgesia.

Pharmacological characterization of beta-endorphin- and dynorphin A(1-17)-induced feeding using G-protein alpha-subunit antisense probes in rats.

Antisense (AS) oligodeoxynucleotides targeting G-protein alpha-subunits distinguish feeding responses of morphine and its metabolite, as well as nocturnal and deprivation-induced feeding. The present study examined whether feeding elicited by beta-endorphin (betaEND) or dynorphin A(1-17) was altered by ventricularly-applied G(i)alpha(1), G(i)alpha(2), G(i)alpha(3), G(s)alpha, G(o)alpha, G(q)alpha or G(x/z)alpha AS probes, or a nonsense (NS) control. The betaEND-induced feeding was reduced by the G(i)alpha(1) and G(x/z)alpha AS probes, and increased by G(i)alpha(2) or G(i)alpha(3) AS treatment. Dynorphin-induced feeding was attenuated by G(i)alpha(1) and G(o)alpha AS treatment. Yet, G(s)alpha or G(q)alpha AS and NS treatments failed to alter opioid agonist-induced feeding. These data provide initial characterization of potential effector signaling pathways mediating betaEND and dynorphin-induced feeding.

Reciprocal interactions between the amygdala and ventrolateral periaqueductal gray in mediating of Q/N(1-17)-induced analgesia in the rat.

The opioid peptide, Orphanin FQ/nociceptin (OFQ/N(1-17))(,) its active fragments, and a related precursor peptide each produce analgesia following microinjection into the amygdala of rats. OFQ/N(1-17)-induced analgesia elicited from the amygdala is blocked by amygdala pretreatment of either general, mu, kappa, or delta-opioid antagonists even though OFQ/N(1-17) binds poorly to these receptor subtypes, and the antagonists bind poorly to the ORL-1/KOR-3 receptor. Agonists at mu and kappa opioid receptors as well as beta-endorphin each produce analgesia elicited from the amygdala that is blocked by opioid antagonist pretreatment in the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) of rats. The present study examined whether pretreatment of general and selective opioid antagonists in the vlPAG blocked OFQ/N(1-17)-induced analgesia on the tail-flick test elicited from the amygdala, and whether pretreatment of general and selective opioid antagonists in the amygdala blocked OFQ/N(1-17)-induced analgesia elicited from the vlPAG of rats. OFQ/N(1-17)-induced analgesia elicited from the amygdala was significantly and markedly reduced following vlPAG pretreatment with a dose range of either naltrexone, beta-funaltrexamine (beta-FNA, mu), nor-binaltorphamine (NBNI, kappa) or naltrindole (NTI, delta). In contrast, opioid antagonists administered into misplaced mesencephalic control placements ventral and lateral to the vlPAG actually enhanced OFQ/N(1-17)-induced analgesia elicited from the amygdala. OFQ/N(1-17)-induced analgesia elicited from the vlPAG was significantly and markedly reduced following amygdala pretreatment with naltrexone and NBNI, to a lesser degree by NTI, and was unaffected by beta-FNA. Yet, opioid antagonists administered into misplaced amygdala control placements were generally ineffective in altering OFQ/N(1-17)-induced analgesia elicited from the vlPAG. Latencies were transiently increased by general, but not selective opioid antagonist treatment alone in the amygdala, but not the vlPAG. These data indicate reciprocal and regional interactions between the amygdala and vlPAG in the mediation of OFQ/N(1-17) by classic opioid receptor subtype antagonists in rats.

Feeding induced by food deprivation is differentially reduced by G-protein alpha-subunit antisense probes in rats.

Antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (AS ODN) probes directed against the alpha-subunit of different G-proteins have been used to differentiate feeding responses in rats elicited by different opioid agonists, including morphine, beta-endorphin and dynorphin. Furthermore, antisense probes directed against G(o)alpha, but not G(s)alpha, G(q)alpha or G(i)alpha, significantly reduced nocturnal feeding in rats. The present study examined whether food intake and weight changes elicited by 24 h of food deprivation were significantly altered by ventricular administration of antisense probes directed against either G(i)alpha(1), G(i)alpha(2), G(i)alpha(3), G(s)alpha, G(o)alpha, G(q)alpha or G(x/z)alpha as well as a control nonsense probe in rats. Deprivation-induced weight loss was significantly enhanced by antisense probes directed against G(s)alpha and G(x/z)alpha, whereas weight recovery 24 h following reintroduction of food was significantly reduced by antisense probes directed against G(i)alpha(2), G(q)alpha and G(o)alpha. Selective antisense probe effects were noted for deprivation-induced intake with G(s)alpha and G(q)alpha probes exerting the greatest reductions, G(x/z)alpha, G(i)alpha(2), and G(i)alpha(3) probes exerting lesser effects, and G(i)alpha(1) and G(o)alpha probes failing to affect deprivation-induced intake. Importantly, the nonsense control probe failed to alter deprivation-induced intake or weight. The reductions in deprivation-induced intake by AS ODN probes directed against G(s)alpha or G(q)alpha were not accompanied by any evidence of a conditioned taste aversion. These data indicate important distinctions between G-protein mediation of different effector signaling pathways mediating feeding responses elicited under natural (e.g. nocturnal feeding) and regulatory challenge (e.g. food deprivation) conditions.

Differential expressions of the alternatively spliced variant mRNAs of the µ opioid receptor gene, OPRM1, in brain regions of four inbred mouse strains.

The µ opioid receptor gene, OPRM1, undergoes extensive alternative pre-mRNA splicing in rodents and humans, with dozens of alternatively spliced variants of the OPRM1 gene. The present studies establish a SYBR green quantitative PCR (qPCR) assay to more accurately quantify mouse OPRM1 splice variant mRNAs. Using these qPCR assays, we examined the expression of OPRM1 splice variant mRNAs in selected brain regions of four inbred mouse strains displaying differences in µ opioid-induced tolerance and physical dependence: C56BL/6J, 129P3/J, SJL/J and SWR/J. The complete mRNA expression profiles of the OPRM1 splice variants reveal marked differences of the variant mRNA expression among the brain regions in each mouse strain, suggesting region-specific alternative splicing of the OPRM1 gene. The expression of many variants was also strain-specific, implying a genetic influence on OPRM1 alternative splicing. The expression levels of a number of the variant mRNAs in certain brain regions appear to correlate with strain sensitivities to morphine analgesia, tolerance and physical dependence in four mouse strains.

The contribution of MOR-1 exons 1-4 to morphine and heroin analgesia and dependence.

Although morphine and heroin analgesia is mediated by mu-opioid receptors encoded by the MOR-1 gene, distinct isoforms are involved. Both opioids also induce dependence by acting at mu-opioid receptors, but which variants are utilized is not known. Here, we assayed morphine and heroin analgesia and dependence in mice treated with antisense oligodeoxynucleotides (AO) targeting MOR-1 exons 1-4. Whereas AOs targeting exons 1 and 4 blocked morphine analgesia, those targeting exons 2 and 3 blocked heroin analgesia. Neither morphine nor heroin analgesia was compromised 5 days after the last AO injection. In morphine and heroin dependent mice, only exon 1 AO significantly reduced jumping incidence during naloxone (50mg/kg) precipitated withdrawal. Neither analgesia nor withdrawal jumping was attenuated in controls pretreated with saline or a mismatch oligodeoxynucleotide control sequence. While these data confirm previous reports that morphine and heroin analgesia are not mediated by a single mu-opioid receptor, both opiates nonetheless apparently induce dependence via a mu-opioid receptor isoform containing exon 1. For heroin, the possibility that analgesia and dependence are mediated by distinct mu-opioid receptor isoforms offers the prospect of developing potent opiate analgesics possessing reduced dependence liability.

Codeine and 6-acetylcodeine analgesia in mice.

1. Acetylation of morphine at the 6-position changes its pharmacology. To see if similar changes are seen with codeine, we examined the analgesic actions of codeine and 6-acetylcodeine. 2. Like codeine, 6-acetylcodeine is an effective analgesic systemically, supraspinally and spinally, with a potency approximately a third that of codeine. 3. The sensitivity of 6-acetylcodeine analgesia to the mu-selective antagonists beta-FNA and naloxonazine confirmed its classification as a mu opioid. However, it differed from the other mu analgesics in other paradigms. 4. Antisense mapping revealed the sensitivity of 6-acetylcodeine to probes targeting exons 1 and 2 of the mu opioid receptor gene (Oprm), a profile distinct from either codeine or morphine. Although heroin analgesia also is sensitive to antisense targeting exons 1 and 2, heroin analgesia also is sensitive to the antagonist 3-O-methylnaltrexone, while 6-acetylcodeine analgesia is not. 5. Thus, 6-acetylcodeine is an effective mu opioid analgesic with a distinct pharmacological profile.

Dynorphin A(1-17)-induced feeding: pharmacological characterization using selective opioid antagonists and antisense probes in rats.

Ventricular administration of the opioid dynorphin A(1-17) induces feeding in rats. Because its pharmacological characterization has not been fully identified, the present study examined whether a dose-response range of general and selective opioid antagonists as well as antisense oligodeoxynucleotide (AS ODN) opioid probes altered daytime feeding over a 4-h time course elicited by dynorphin. Dynorphin-induced feeding was significantly reduced by a wide range of doses (5-80 nmol i.c.v.) of the selective kappa(1)-opioid antagonist nor-binaltorphamine. Correspondingly, AS ODN probes directed against either exons 1 and 2, but not 3 of the kappa-opioid receptor clone (KOR-1) reduced dynorphin-induced feeding, whereas a missense oligodeoxynucleotide control probe was ineffective. Furthermore, AS ODN probes directed against either exons 1 or 2, but not 3 of the kappa(3)-like opioid receptor clone (KOR-3/ORL-1) also attenuated dynorphin-induced feeding. Although the selective mu-antagonist beta-funaltrexamine (20-80 nmol) reduced dynorphin-induced feeding, an AS ODN probe directed only against exon 1 of the mu-opioid receptor clone was transiently effective. Neither general (naltrexone, 80 nmol) nor delta (naltrindole, 80 nmol)-selective opioid antagonists were particularly effective in reducing dynorphin-induced feeding, and an AS ODN probe targeting the individual exons of the delta-opioid receptor clone failed to significantly reduce dynorphin-induced feeding. These converging antagonist and AS ODN data firmly implicate the kappa(1)-opioid receptor and the KOR-1 and KOR-3/ORL-1 opioid receptor genes in the mediation of dynorphin-induced feeding.

Characterization of rat prepro-orphanin FQ/nociceptin((154-181)): nociceptive processing in supraspinal sites.

Orphanin FQ/nociceptin (OFQ/N), the endogenous ligand for the orphan receptor-like/kappa(3)-like opioid receptor clone, produces a variety of behavioral responses, including those associated with pronociception and antinociception. The OFQ/N precursor rattus-proOFQ (rppOFQ/N) contains several paired basic amino acids, which raises the possibility that post-translational processing can be responsible for the production of a number of additional biologically active peptide fragments. One of these putative peptides, rppOFQ/N (rppOFQ/N(154-181)), was examined for antinociceptive and pronociceptive processes in four brain sites involved in pain inhibition: the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG), the amygdala, the locus coeruleus (LC), and the rostroventromedial medulla (RVM). Endogenous rppOFQ/N(154-181) was identified in each region. rppOFQ/N(154-181) produced a dose-dependent antinociception in all four sites using the tailflick assay. Injections into misplaced cannula sites failed to exert effects. Antinociception in the four sites differed in their response to the opioid antagonist naloxone. Naloxone pretreatment completely blocked rppOFQ/N(154-181)-induced antinociception in the vlPAG and the amygdala, but not in the LC or RVM. In contrast rppOFQ/N(154-181) was hyperalgesic in the LC and RVM, but not in the vlPAG or amygdala. rppOFQ/N(154-181) also was compared with either its N-terminal 17-amino acid peptide (rppOFQ/N(154-170), also known as OFQ2) or its 8-amino acid C-terminal fragment (rppOFQ/N(174-181)). Although both rppOFQ/N(154-181) and rppOFQ/N(154-170) produced antinociception, the latter was less effective because the C-terminal fragment was inactive. Thus, rppOFQ/N(154-181) has complex antinociceptive and pronociceptive actions within the brain, and the pharmacological specificity of its actions differs among supraspinal sites.