The impact and future of artificial intelligence in medical genetics and molecular medicine: an ongoing revolution.

Artificial intelligence (AI) platforms have emerged as pivotal tools in genetics and molecular medicine, as in many other fields. The growth in patient data, identification of new diseases and phenotypes, discovery of new intracellular pathways, availability of greater sets of omics data, and the need to continuously analyse them have led to the development of new AI platforms. AI continues to weave its way into the fabric of genetics with the potential to unlock new discoveries and enhance patient care. This technology is setting the stage for breakthroughs across various domains, including dysmorphology, rare hereditary diseases, cancers, clinical microbiomics, the investigation of zoonotic diseases, omics studies in all medical disciplines. AI's role in facilitating a deeper understanding of these areas heralds a new era of personalised medicine, where treatments and diagnoses are tailored to the individual's molecular features, offering a more precise approach to combating genetic or acquired disorders. The significance of these AI platforms is growing as they assist healthcare professionals in the diagnostic and treatment processes, marking a pivotal shift towards more informed, efficient, and effective medical practice. In this review, we will explore the range of AI tools available and show how they have become vital in various sectors of genomic research supporting clinical decisions.

Contribution of genotypes in Prothrombin and Factor V Leiden to COVID-19 and disease severity in patients at high risk for hereditary thrombophilia.

Thrombotic and microangiopathic effects have been reported in COVID-19 patients. This study examined the contribution of the hereditary thrombophilia factors Prothrombin (FII) and Factor V Leiden (FVL) genotypes to the severity of COVID-19 disease and the development of thrombosis. This study investigated FII and FVL alleles in a cohort of 9508 patients (2606 male and 6902 female) with thrombophilia. It was observed that 930 of these patients had been infected by SARS-CoV-2 causing COVID-19. The demographic characteristics of the patients and their COVID-19 medical history were recorded. Detailed clinical manifestations were analyzed in a group of cases (n = 4092). This subgroup was age and gender-matched. FII and FVL frequency data of healthy populations without thrombophilia risk were obtained from Bursa Uludag University Medical Genetic Department's Exome Databank. The ratio of males (31.08%; 27.01%) and the mean age (36.85 ± 15.20; 33.89 ± 14.14) were higher among COVID-19 patients compared to non-COVID-19 patients. The prevalence of FVL and computerized tomography (CT) positivity in COVID-19 patients was statistically significant in the thrombotic subgroup (p < 0.05). FVL prevalence, CT positivity rate, history of thrombosis, and pulmonary thromboembolism complication were found to be higher in deceased COVID-19 patients (p < 0.05). Disease severity was mainly affected by FVL and not related to genotypes at the Prothrombin mutations. Overall, disease severity and development of thrombosis in COVID-19 are mainly affected by the variation within the FVL gene. Possible FVL mutation should be investigated in COVID-19 patients and appropriate treatment should be started earlier in FVL-positive patients.

Analysis of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 coding variants as a risk factor for SARS-CoV-2 from 946 whole-exome sequencing data in the Turkish population.

Heterogeneity in symptoms associated with COVID-19 in infected patients remains unclear. ACE2 and TMPRSS2 gene variants are considered possible risk factors for COVID-19. In this study, a retrospective comparative genome analysis of the ACE2 and TMPRSS2 variants from 946 whole-exome sequencing data was conducted. Allele frequencies of all variants were calculated and filtered to remove variants with allele frequencies lower than 0.003 and to prioritize functional coding variants. The majority of detected variants were intronic, only two ACE2 and three TMPRSS2 nonsynonymous variants were detected in the analyzed cohort. The main ACE2 variants that putatively have a protective or susceptibility effect on SARS-CoV-2 have not yet been determined in the Turkish population. The Turkish genetic makeup likely lacks any ACE2 variant that increases susceptibility to SARS-CoV-2 infection. TMPRSS2 rs75603675 and rs12329760 variants that were previously defined as common variants that have different allele frequencies among populations and may have a role in SARS-CoV-2 attachment to host cells were determined in the population. Overall, these data will contribute to the formation of a national variation database and may also contribute to further studies of ACE2 and TMPRSS2 in the Turkish population and differences in SARS-CoV-2 infection among other populations.

Genotype and Phenotype Correlation of Patients with Osteogenesis Imperfecta.

Osteogenesis imperfecta (OI) is the most common inherited connective tissue disease of the bone, characterized by recurrent fractures and deformities. In patients displaying the OI phenotype, genotype-phenotype correlation is used to screen multiple genes swiftly, identify new variants, and distinguish between differential diagnoses and mild subtypes. This study evaluated variants identified through next-generation sequencing in 58 patients with clinical characteristics indicative of OI. The cohort included 18 adults, 37 children, and 3 fetuses. Clinical classification revealed 25 patients as OI type I, three patients as OI type II, 18 as OI type III, and 10 as OI type IV. Fifteen variants in COL1A1 were detected in 19 patients, 9 variants in COL1A2 (n = 19), 5 variants in LEPRE1/P3H1 (n = 7), 3 variants in FKBP10 (n = 4), 3 variants in SERPINH1 (n = 2), 1 variant in IFITM5 (n = 1), and 1 variant in PLS3 (n = 1). In total, 37 variants (18 pathogenic, 14 likely pathogenic, and 5 variants of uncertain significance), including 16 novel variants, were identified in 43 (37 probands, 6 family members) of the 58 patients analyzed. This study highlights the efficacy of panel testing in the molecular diagnosis of OI, the significance of the next-generation sequencing technique, and the importance of genotype-phenotype correlation.

CC2D1A causes ciliopathy, intellectual disability, heterotaxy, renal dysplasia, and abnormal CSF flow.

Intellectual and developmental disabilities result from abnormal nervous system development. Over a 1,000 genes have been associated with intellectual and developmental disabilities, driving continued efforts toward dissecting variant functionality to enhance our understanding of the disease mechanism. This report identified two novel variants in CC2D1A in a cohort of four patients from two unrelated families. We used multiple model systems for functional analysis, including Xenopus, Drosophila, and patient-derived fibroblasts. Our experiments revealed that cc2d1a is expressed explicitly in a spectrum of ciliated tissues, including the left-right organizer, epidermis, pronephric duct, nephrostomes, and ventricular zone of the brain. In line with this expression pattern, loss of cc2d1a led to cardiac heterotaxy, cystic kidneys, and abnormal CSF circulation via defective ciliogenesis. Interestingly, when we analyzed brain development, mutant tadpoles showed abnormal CSF circulation only in the midbrain region, suggesting abnormal local CSF flow. Furthermore, our analysis of the patient-derived fibroblasts confirmed defective ciliogenesis, further supporting our observations. In summary, we revealed novel insight into the role of CC2D1A by establishing its new critical role in ciliogenesis and CSF circulation.

From Death to Life/Back to the Future: Detailed Premorbid Clinical and Family History Can Save Lives and Address the Final Diagnosis in Sudden Unexplained Deaths With Negative Autopsy.

Sudden cardiac death is a sudden, unexpected death developed by one of the many different causes of cardiac arrest that occur within 1 hour of the onset of new symptoms. Sudden unexplained death (SUD) comprises a normal heart at postmortem examination and negative toxicological analysis. SUD often arises from cardiac genetic disease, particularly channelopathies. Channelopathies, or inherited arrhythmia syndromes, are a group of disorders characterized by an increased risk of sudden cardiac death, abnormal cardiac electrical function, and, typically, a structurally normal heart. They share an underlying genetic etiology where disease-causing genetic variants may lead to the absence or dysfunction of proteins involved in the generation and propagation of the cardiac action potential. Our study aimed to evaluate the importance of next-generation sequencing in the postmortem investigations of SUD cases. In this study, 5 forensic SUD cases were investigated for inherited cardiac disorders. We screened a total of 68 cardiac genes for the sibling of case 1, as well as case 2, and 51 genes for cases 3, 4, and 5. Of the 12 variants identified, 2 likely pathogenic variants (16.7%) were the TMEM43 _ c.1000+2T>C splice site mutation and the SCN5A _ p.W703X nonsense mutation. The remaining 10 variants of uncertain significance were detected in the TRPM4 , RANGRF , A KAP9 , KCND3 , KCNE1 , DSG2 , CASQ1 , and SNTA1 genes. Irrespective of genetic testing, all SUD families require detailed clinical testing to identify relatives who may be at risk. Molecular autopsy and detailed premorbid clinical and family histories can survive family members of SUD cases.

A new line method; A direct test in spinal muscular atrophy screening for DBS.

BACKGROUND: Nucleic acid-based assays provide an opportunity to screen for genetically encoded diseases like spinal muscular atrophy (SMA), before the onset of symptoms. Nowadays, such assays could be easily utilized as high-throughputs in SMA to detect a homozygous deletion of exon 7 of the survival motor neuron 1 gene (SMN1) that is responsible for >95% of SMA patients. METHODS: We developed a new line method (NLM) as a direct real time PCR test procedure without nucleic acid extraction in dried blood spots (DBS) to screen for homozygous deletion of exon 7 of the SMN1 gene. Performance of this setup was evaluated on 580 DBS newborn samples and air dried 50 DBS from whole blood including 20 samples for homozygous deletion of the SMN1 gene detected earlier with MLPA. RESULTS: We found all 580 newborn DBS samples as wild type. DBS prepared from 50 whole blood samples also including 20 affected people were correctly identified as homozygous deletions and 30 wild types of exon 7 of SMN1 as before with MLPA. When the MLPA method was taken as the gold standard, the sensitivity and specificity of the NLM test were found 100% for the detection of SMN1 exon 7 homozygous deletion. CONCLUSION: In the NLM, the total test duration has been reduced to less than 75 min without requiring any extra process such as DNA extraction step and sample plate preparation after the punching step. Thereby, newborn SMA screening with the NLM has gained an environmentally friendly feature with not requiring additional tedious steps.

Birt-Hogg-Dubé Syndrome: Diagnostic Journey of Three Cases from Skin to Gene.

Birt-Hogg-Dube syndrome (BHDS) is a rare disorder characterized by the triad of cutaneous lesions, renal tumors, lung cysts and inactivation of the gene folliculin (FLCN). Here, we present three female patients diagnosed with BHDS. First case a 55-year-old female had flesh moles histopathology compatible with angiofibroma, multiple cysts in the lung and kidneys, FLCN gene mutations ('c.1285dupC [p.His429Profs*]' 11th exon and 'c.653G>A [p.Arg258His]' 7th exon). The second case a 76-year-old female had trichodiscoma on her skin, multiple cysts in the lung, spontaneous pneumothorax, FLCN gene mutation 'c.1285dupC (p.His429Profs*27) 11th exon' and, her son had renal carcinoma history under 50 years of age. Our third case, also the daughter of case 2, had dermal papules histopathology compatible with trichodiscoma, spontaneous pneumothorax, FLCN gene mutation 'c.1285dupC (p.His429Profs*27) 11th exon' and, parotid oncocytoma. Through our cases, we document the first case of two mutations ('c.1285dupC [p.His429Profs*]' 11th exon and 'c.653G>A [p.Arg258His]' 7th exon) in the same FLCN gene and the 11th known case of parotid oncocytoma associated with BHDS in the light of the literature.

Germline landscape of BRCAs by 7-site collaborations as a BRCA consortium in Turkey.

BRCA1/2 mutations play a significant role in cancer pathogenesis and predisposition particularly in breast, ovarian and prostate cancers. Thus, germline analysis of BRCA1 and BRCA2 is essential for clinical management strategies aiming at the identification of recurrent and novel mutations that could be used as a first screening approach. We analyzed germline variants of BRCA1/2 genes for 2168 individuals who had cancer diagnosis or high risk assessment due to BRCAs related cancers, referred to 10 health care centers distributed across 7 regions covering the Turkish landscape. Overall, 68 and 157 distinct mutations were identified in BRCA1 and BRCA2, respectively. Twenty-two novel variants were reported from both genes while BRCA2 showed higher mutational heterogeneity. We herein report the collective data as BRCA Turkish consortium that confirm the molecular heterogeneity in BRCAs among Turkish population, and also as the first study presenting the both geographical, demographical and gene based landscape of all recurrent and novel mutations which some might be a founder effect in comparison to global databases. This wider perspective leads to the most accurate variant interpretations which pave the way for the more precise and efficient management affecting the clinical and molecular aspects.

The Importance of Multiple Gene Analysis for Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis in Charcot Marie Tooth Disease.

AIM: To investigate the genetic etiology of Charcot-Marie-Tooth (CMT) disease or hereditary motor and sensory neuropathy (HMSN). MATERIAL AND METHODS: We herein examined 55 non-related patients with a suspicion of CMT phenotype or HMSN using a customized multigene panel based on the next-generation sequencing technique. All cases were previously analyzed for PMP22 duplication with the Multiplex Ligand Probe Amplification (MLPA) method. RESULTS: In 13 cases (7.15%), we identified a pathogenic/likely pathogenic variant. The affected genes were MARS1, NDRG1, GJB1, GDAP1, MFN2, PRX, SH3TC2, and FGD4. In six cases (10.9%), novel variants were identified: pathogenic variants in GJB1 and FGD4 genes, variants of unknown significance (VUS) in HSPB3, CHRNA1, ARHGEF10, and KIF5A genes. In 21 cases (11.55%), VUS with the genes HSPB3, KIF1B, SCN11A, CHRNA1, HSPB1, FIG4, ARHGEF10, DHTKD1, SBF1, EGR2, SBF2, IGHMBP2, KIF5A, and DNAJB2 were identified. CONCLUSION: In this study, we had a 7.15% diagnosis rate with the NGS (Next Generation Sequencing) method in the CMT disease. Targeted next-generation sequencing panels are beneficial, time-saving, and cost-effective in the diagnosis of CMT.

Characterization and in silico analyses of the BRCA1/2 variants identified in individuals with personal and/or family history of BRCA-related cancers.

Pathogenic variants in the coding regions of the BRCA1/2 lead dysfunctional or nonfunctional BRCA proteins however the contribution of non-coding BRCA1/2 variants to BRCA-related disease risk has not been fully elucidated. Thus, we characterized the functional impact of both coding and non-coding BRCA1/2 variants identified in individuals with personal and/or family history of BRCA-related cancers. The data were produced by resequencing the exons and exon-intron junctions of the BRCA1/2 in 125 individuals and were comprehensively analyzed by using bioinformatics tools and databases. A total of 96 variants (59 coding and 37 non-coding) including 7 novel variants were identified and analyzed for their functional importance. We identified 11 missense variants that potentially affect protein function; 22 variants were likely to alter different types of posttranslational modifications. Also, multiple non-coding BRCA1/2 variants were found to reside in the critical regulatory regions that have the potential to act as eQTLs and affect alternative splicing. The results of our study shed light on the possible contributions of not only coding variants but also non-coding BRCA1/2 variants in BRCRA-related cancers. Further investigation is required to fully understand their potential associations with phenotypes which may ultimately lead their utilization on cancer management as a biomarker.

Inconsistency of Karyotyping and Array Comparative Genomic Hybridization (aCGH) in a Mosaic Turner Syndrome Case.

Purpose Turner syndrome is a sex chromosomal aberration where majority of the patients have 45,X karyotype, while several patients are mosaic involving 45,X/46,XX; 46,X,i(Xq); and other variants. Cytogenetic analysis, karyotyping, is considered to be the "gold standard" to detect numerical and structural chromosomal abnormalities. In the recent years, alternative approaches, such as array comparative genomic hybridization (aCGH), have been widely used in genetic analysis to detect numerical abnormalities as well as unbalanced structural rearrangements. In this study, we report the use of karyotyping as well as aCGH in detecting a possible Turner syndrome variant. Methods An apparent 16-year-old female was clinically diagnosed as Turner syndrome with premature ovarian failure and short stature. The genetic diagnosis was performed for the patient and the parents by karyotyping analysis. aCGH was also performed for the patient. Main Findings Cytogenetic analysis of the patient was performed showing variant Turner syndrome (46,X,i(X)(q10)[26]/46,X,del(X)(q11.2)[11]/45,X[8]/46,XX[5]). The patient's aCGH result revealed that she has a deletion of 57,252kb of Xp22.33-p11.21 region; arr[GRCh37] Xp22.33-p11.21 (310,932-57,563-078)X1. Both aCGH and fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) results suggested that short stature Homeobox-containing ( SHOX ) gene, which is located on Xp22.33, was deleted, though FISH result indicated that this was in a mosaic pattern. Conclusion In the recent years, aCGH has become the preferred method in detecting numerical abnormalities and unbalanced chromosomal rearrangements. However, its use is hindered by its failure of detecting mosaicism, especially low-level partial mosaicism. Therefore, although the resolution of the aCGH is higher, the cytogenetic investigation is still the first in line to detect mosaicism.

Distribution of KRAS and BRAF Mutations in Metastatic Colorectal Cancers in Turkish Patients.

The results of this study demonstrate the potential prognostic and predictive values of KRAS and BRAF gene mutations in patients with colorectal cancer (CRC). It has been proven that KRAS and BRAF mutations are predictive biomarkers for resistance to anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody treatment in patients with metastatic CRC (mCRC). We demonstrated the distribution of KRAS (codons 12, 13 and 61) and BRAF (codon 600) gene mutations in 50 mCRCs using direct sequencing and compared the results with clinicopathological data. KRAS and BRAF mutations were identified in 15 (30%) and 1 (2%) patients, respectively. We identified KRAS mutations in codon 12, 13 and 61 in 73.3% (11/15), 20% (3/15) and 6.67% (1/15) of the positive patients, respectively. The KRAS mutation frequency was significantly higher in tumors located in the ascending colon (p=0.043). Thus, we found that approximately 1/3 of the patients with mCRC had KRAS mutations and the only clinicopathological factor related to this mutation was tumor location. Future studies with larger patient groups should yield more accurate data regarding the molecular mechanism of CRC and the association between KRAS and BRAF mutations and clinicopathological features.

Glutathione S-transferase T1, M1 and P1 Genetic Polymorphisms and Susceptibility to Colorectal Cancer in Turkey.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is reported to be the third most common cancer worldwide and the fourth most common cause of cancer related deaths. CRC is considered to be a multifactorial disease whose risk varies due to the complex interaction between individual genetic basis and exposure to multiple endogenous factors. Glutathione S-transferases are pro-carcinogenic in CRC and are required for the conjugation between chemotherapeutics and broad spectrum xenobiotics. One hundred and eleven patients with CRC and 128 control subjects without any cancer history were enrolled in this study. Multiplex PCR was applied to determine polymorphisms for the GSTT1 and M1 genes, and PCR-RFLP was applied for the GSTP1 (Ile105Val) gene polymorphism. Values <0.05 were defined as statistically significant. We detected a significant high correlation between predisposition for CRC and presence of the Ile/Ile genotype of the GSTP1 (IIe105Val) gene polymorphism, but we did not find a significant relationship between predisposition for CRC and GSTT1 and M1 deletion polymorphisms. In addition, we did not determine a relationship between GSTT1, M1 and P1 gene polymorphisms and any clinicopathological features of CRC. GSTT1 null/GSTM1 positive and GSTT1 null/GSTM1 positive/GSTP1 Ile/ Ile genotypes were significantly higher in the patient group. Our results revealed that there is no relationship among CRC, its clinicopathologic features, and GSTT1 M1 gene polymorphisms. However, there was a significant correlation between CRC and the GSTP1 Ile/Ile genotype. Further studies with larger patient groups are required to delineate the relationships between GST gene polymorphisms and the clinicopathologic features of CRC in Turkey.

Associations analysis of GSTM1, T1 and P1 Ile105Val polymorphisms with carpal tunnel syndrome.

Oxidative stress was related with carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS). We aimed to clarify the associations between glutathione S-transferase (GST)M1, GSTT1 and GSTP1-Ile105Val polymorphisms and CTS. One hundred-forty patients with CTS and 97 healthy controls were enrolled in this study. Tinel and Phalen signs were noted as positive or negative. Functional and clinical status of patients was evaluated by the Boston Questionnaire. The intensity of hand and/or wrist pain was evaluated on 10 cm visual analog scale (VAS). We applied the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to determine the polymorphisms of the GSTM1 and GSTT1 and the PCR-restriction fragment length polymorphism method for detecting the GSTP1-Ile105Val polymorphism. The M1 null genotype was significantly higher in patients with CTS compared to healthy controls, and the M1 null genotype seemed to increase the risk of CTS approximately two-fold (P = 0.011; odds ratio (OR) = 1.98; 95 % confidence interval (CI) 1.17-3.36). The M1 null, T1 present combined genotype was significantly higher in patients with CTS compared to healthy controls (P = 0.043); however, it seemed not to increase the risk of CTS (P = 0.14; OR = 0.62; 95 % CI 0.33-1.76). We found significantly higher levels of the VAS, Boston Symptom Severity Scale and Phalen sign in patients with the Ile/Val or the Val/Val genotypes compared to those in patients with the Ile/Ile genotype (P = 0.003, 0.004 and 0.044, respectively). We proposed that genes involved in the protection from oxidative stress may influence the susceptibility, clinical and functional status of CTS. The GSTM1 null genotype may be related with the development of CTS, whereas the Val allele of GSTP1-Ile105Val polymorphism may be associated with worse functional and clinical status in CTS.

Spectrum of EGFR gene mutations and ALK rearrangements in lung cancer patients in Turkey.

The EGFR gene and ALK rearrangements are two genetic drivers of non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC). The frequency of EGFR mutations and ALK rearrangement varies according to not only ethnicity but also gender, smoking status and the histological type of NSCLC. In the present study, we demonstrated the distribution of EGFR mutations in 132 NSCLC patients by using a pyrosequencing technique and the distribution of ALK rearrangements in 51 NSCLC patients by using fluorescent in situ hybridization technique in Turkey. Additionally, we compared the clinicopathological data of NSCLC patients with the mutation status of EGFR in their cancerous tissues. Both EGFR mutations and ALK rearrangements were identified in 19 (14.39 %) and 1 (1.96 %) patients, respectively. We found EGFR mutations in codon 861, 719 and 858 with the ratios of 10.52 % (2/19), 10.52 % (2/19) and 31.58 % (6/19), respectively, and deletion of exon 19 in 47.37 % (9/19) of the patients. We found the frequency of EGFR mutations to be significantly higher in female patients and nonsmokers (p = 0.043, p = 0.027, respectively). Consequently, we found EGFR mutations to be more frequent in female patients and nonsmokers. Future studies on larger patient groups would provide more accurate data to exhibit the relationship between EGFR mutations and ALK rearrangements and the clinicopathological status.

MMP2 gene-735 C/T and MMP9 gene -1562 C/T polymorphisms in JAK2V617F positive myeloproliferative disorders.

BACKGROUND: Myeloproliferative disorders (MPDs) are clonal hematologic malignancies originating at the level of the pluripotent hematopoietic stem cell. Matrix metalloproteases (MMPs) are proteolytic enzymes that contribute to all stages of malignancy progression. Genetic variants in the MMP genes may influence the biological function of these enzymes and change their role in carcinogenesis and progression. To our knowledge, this is the first investigation of associations between the -735 C/T and -1562 C/T polymorphisms in the MMP2 and MMP9 genes, respectively, and the risk of essential thrombocytosis (ET), and polycythemia vera (PV). MATERIALS AND METHODS: The case-control study included JAK2V617F mutation positive 102 ET and PV patients and 111 controls. Polymorphisms were determined by using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) and electrophoresis. RESULTS: No statistically significant differences were detected between patient (ET+PV) and control groups regarding genotype distribution for MMP2 gene-735 C/T and MMP9 gene -1562 C/T polymorphisms and C/T allele frequency (p>0.050). Statistically borderline significance was observed between PV and control groups regarding genotype distribution for the MMP9 gene -1562 C/T polymorphism (p=0.050, OR=2.26, 95%Cl=0.99-5.16). CONCLUSIONS: Consequently this study supported that CC genotype of MMP9 gene -1562 C/T polymorphism may be related with PV even if with borderline significance.

Association of the ACE I/D gene polymorphisms with JAK2V617F-positive polycythemia vera and essential thrombocythemia.

The renin-angiotensin system contributes to cell growth, proliferation, and differentiation in the bone marrow. We investigated the role of the ACE I/D gene polymorphism in 108 polycythemia vera (PV) and essential thrombocytosis (ET) patients who were positive for the JAK2V617F mutation, with a thrombosis group (TG) of 95 patients who had a history of vascular events, but did not have a history of myeloproliferative neoplasms and compared these to a healthy control group (CG) of 72 subjects. In the patients, II genotype and I allele frequency (p=0.009, odds ratio [OR]=9.716, 95% confidence interval [CI]=1.242-76.00, p=0.004, OR=2.019, 95% CI=1.243-3.280, respectively) were found to be higher than those in the controls. The DD genotype (p=0.021, OR=0.491, 95% CI=0.268-0.899) and D allele (p=0.004, OR=0.495, 95% CI=0.305-0.805) were found to be correlated with a decreased risk of a myeloproliferative neoplasm. These findings support the hypothesis that the ACE II genotype and I allele may be related to increased risk of ET and PV. Conversely, the DD genotype and D allele may be related to decreased risk of ET and PV. The results also indicated that the ACE I/D gene polymorphism was independent of thrombosis formation.

Association between p16(CDKN2A) C540G polymorphism and tumor behavior in prolactinoma: A single-center study.

Pituitary tumors usually originate as benign sporadic adenomas and develop into invasive and aggressive tumors such as prolactinomas, which are common functioning pituitary adenomas. The aim of the present study was to examine the association between the tumor behavior in prolactinomas and the p16(CDKN2A) gene polymorphism occurring at the 3'-untranslated region of exon 3 (C540G). A total of 104 patients with prolactinoma were included and assigned to two groups based on invasive vs. non-invasive tumor behavior. Ki67 indices were recorded according to histopathology results. Genotypic analysis of the p16(CDKN2A) C540G polymorphism was carried out using a modified polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism assay. The corresponding frequencies for CC, CG and GG genotypes in non-invasive vs. invasive tumors were 61.5, 30.8, 7.7 and 64.1, 28.2, 7.7%, respectively (not significant). The observed CG genotype frequency was higher compared with previous studies. In addition, the patients with giant adenomas or a high Ki67 index had a higher frequency of the CG genotype as compared with the other subgroups, although the differences were not significant (46.2 and 42.9%, respectively). In conclusion, a higher frequency of the C540G CG genotype of the CDKN2A gene was found among patients with prolactinoma in comparison with previous studies. These frequencies were also higher in the subgroups with elevated Ki67 or giant adenomas. Further studies are required to improve the definition of the role of the CG genotype in the development and progression of tumors in prolactinomas.