Multicenter Analysis of Attrition from the Pediatric Tuberculosis Infection Care Cascade in Boston.

OBJECTIVE: To characterize losses from the pediatric tuberculosis (TB) infection care cascade to identify ways to improve TB infection care delivery. STUDY DESIGN: We conducted a retrospective cohort study of children (age <18 years) screened for TB within 2 Boston-area health systems between January 2017 and May 2019. Patients who received a tuberculin skin test (TST) and/or an interferon gamma release assay (IGRA) were included. RESULTS: We included 13 353 tests among 11 622 patients; 93.9% of the tests were completed. Of 199 patients with positive tests for whom TB infection evaluation was clinically appropriate, 59.3% completed treatment or were recommended to not start treatment. Age 12-17 years (vs < 5 years; aOR 1.59; 95% CI, 1.32-1.92), non-English/non-Spanish language preference (vs English; aOR, 1.34; 95% CI, 1.02-1.76), and receipt of an IGRA (vs TST, aOR, 30.82; 95% CI, 21.92-43.34) were associated with increased odds of testing completion. Odds of testing completion decreased as census tract social vulnerability index quartile increased (ie, social vulnerability worsened; most vulnerable quartile vs least vulnerable quartile, aOR, 0.77; 95% CI, 0.60-0.99). Odds of completing treatment after starting treatment were higher in females (vs males; aOR, 2.35; 95% CI, 1.14-4.85) and were lower in patients starting treatment in a primary care clinic (vs TB/infectious diseases clinic; aOR, 0.44; 95% CI, 0.27-0.71). CONCLUSIONS: Among children with a high proportion of negative TB infection tests, completion of testing was high, but completion of evaluation and treatment was moderate. Transitions toward IGRA testing will improve testing completion; interventions addressing social determinants of health are important to improve treatment completion.

Predictive Value of Direct Disk Diffusion Testing from Positive Blood Cultures in a Children's Hospital and Its Utility in Antimicrobial Stewardship.

Accurate and early susceptibility results could reduce overuse of broad-spectrum antibiotics for empirical treatment of bacteremia. Direct disk diffusion testing (dDD) using nonstandardized inocula directly from blood cultures could facilitate earlier narrowing of antibiotics. To determine the predictive value of dDD compared with standardized antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST), we performed a retrospective cohort study of 582 blood cultures from 495 pediatric patients with bacteremia. Positive and negative predictive value (PPV: number of isolates susceptible by both dDD and AST divided by the total number of isolates susceptible by dDD; NPV: number of isolates not susceptible [either intermediate or resistant] by both dDD and AST divided by the total number of isolates not susceptible by dDD), sensitivity, specificity, and 95% confidence interval were calculated for each bacterium-antibiotic combination. We evaluated the Antibiotic Spectrum Index of prescribed antibiotics to assess change in antibiotic prescribing after availability of Gram stain, dDD, and AST results. dDD results were available a median of 21 h before AST results. dDD had PPVs of ≥96% for most organism-antibiotic pairs, including 100% (CI 96 to 100%) for Staphylococcus aureus with oxacillin and 99% (CI 93 to 100%) for Enterobacterales with ceftriaxone. NPVs of dDD were variable and frequently lower than the PPV. Very major errors and major errors occurred in 31/5,454 (0.6%) and 231/5,454 (4.2%) organism-antibiotic combinations, respectively. Antibiotics were narrowed in 30% of cases after a dDD result and a further 25% of cases after AST result. dDD is highly predictive of susceptibility for many common organism-antibiotic combinations and provides actionable information one day earlier than standard susceptibility approaches. dDD has the potential to facilitate earlier deescalation to narrow-spectrum antibiotic treatment.

The Role of Anesthetic Management in Surgical Site Infections After Pediatric Intestinal Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Although surgical site infections (SSIs) remain a significant health care issue, a limited number of studies have analyzed risk factors for SSIs in children, particularly the role of intraoperative anesthetic management. Pediatric patients are less likely to have major adult risk factors for SSIs such as smoking and diabetes. Thus children may be more suitable as a cohort for examining the role of intraoperative anesthetics in SSIs. AIM: We examined an association between SSI incidence and anesthetic management in children who underwent elective intestinal surgery in a single institution. METHODS: We performed a retrospective study of 621 patients who underwent elective intestinal surgery under general anesthesia between January 2017 and September 2019, with primary outcome as the incidence of SSIs. We compared patients who were dichotomized in accordance with the median of the sevoflurane dose. We used propensity score (PS) pairwise matching of these patients to avoid selection biases. PS matching yielded 204 pairs of patients. RESULTS: We found that higher doses of sevoflurane were associated with a higher incidence of SSIs (9.8% versus 3.9%, P = 0.019). We adjusted for intraoperative factors that were not included in the PS adjustment factors, and multivariate regression analysis after PS matching showed compatible results (odds ratio: 2.58, 95% confidence interval: 1.11-6.04, P = 0.028). CONCLUSIONS: Higher doses of sevoflurane are associated with increased odds of SSIs after pediatric elective intestinal surgery. A randomized controlled study of volatile anesthetic-based versus intravenous anesthetic-based anesthesia will be needed to further determine the role of anesthetic drugs in SSI risk.

Risk factors for pediatric surgical site infection following neurosurgical procedures for hydrocephalus: a retrospective single-center cohort study.

BACKGROUND: Infection is a major complication following cerebral spinal fluid (CSF) diversion procedures for hydrocephalus. However, pediatric risk factors for surgical site infection (SSI) are currently not well defined. Because a SSI prevention bundle is increasingly introduced, the purpose of this study was to evaluate risk factors associated with SSIs following CSF diversion surgeries following a SSI bundle at a single quaternary care pediatric hospital. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of patients undergoing CSF diversion procedures from 2017 to 2019. SSIs were identified prospectively through continuous surveillance. We performed unadjusted logistic regression analyses and univariate analyses to determine an association between SSIs and patient demographics, comorbidities and perioperative factors to identify independent risk factors for SSI. RESULTS: We identified a total of 558 CSF diversion procedures with an overall SSI rate of 3.4%. The SSI rates for shunt, external ventricular drain (EVD) placement, and endoscopic third ventriculostomy (ETV) were 4.3, 6.9 and 0%, respectively. Among 323 shunt operations, receipt of clindamycin as perioperative prophylaxis and presence of cardiac disease were significantly associated with SSI (O.R. 4.99, 95% C.I. 1.27-19.70, p = 0.02 for the former, and O.R. 7.19, 95% C.I. 1.35-38.35, p = 0.02 for the latter). No risk factors for SSI were identified among 72 EVD procedures. CONCLUSION: We identified receipt of clindamycin as perioperative prophylaxis and the presence of cardiac disease as risk factors for SSI in shunt procedures. Cefazolin is recommended as a standard antibiotic for perioperative prophylaxis. Knowing that unsubstantiated beta-lactam allergy label is a significant medical problem, efforts should be made to clarify beta-lactam allergy status to maximize the number of patients who can receive cefazolin for prophylaxis before shunt placement. Further research is needed to elucidate the mechanism by which cardiac disease may increase SSI risk after shunt procedures.

Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults and Children: 2017 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA).

A panel of experts was convened by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) to update the 2010 clinical practice guideline on Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in adults. The update, which has incorporated recommendations for children (following the adult recommendations for epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment), includes significant changes in the management of this infection and reflects the evolving controversy over best methods for diagnosis. Clostridium difficile remains the most important cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea and has become the most commonly identified cause of healthcare-associated infection in adults in the United States. Moreover, C. difficile has established itself as an important community pathogen. Although the prevalence of the epidemic and virulent ribotype 027 strain has declined markedly along with overall CDI rates in parts of Europe, it remains one of the most commonly identified strains in the United States where it causes a sizable minority of CDIs, especially healthcare-associated CDIs. This guideline updates recommendations regarding epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, infection prevention, and environmental management.

Clinical Practice Guidelines for Clostridium difficile Infection in Adults and Children: 2017 Update by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA).

A panel of experts was convened by the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA) and Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) to update the 2010 clinical practice guideline on Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in adults. The update, which has incorporated recommendations for children (following the adult recommendations for epidemiology, diagnosis, and treatment), includes significant changes in the management of this infection and reflects the evolving controversy over best methods for diagnosis. Clostridium difficile remains the most important cause of healthcare-associated diarrhea and has become the most commonly identified cause of healthcare-associated infection in adults in the United States. Moreover, C. difficile has established itself as an important community pathogen. Although the prevalence of the epidemic and virulent ribotype 027 strain has declined markedly along with overall CDI rates in parts of Europe, it remains one of the most commonly identified strains in the United States where it causes a sizable minority of CDIs, especially healthcare-associated CDIs. This guideline updates recommendations regarding epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, infection prevention, and environmental management.

Adherence to guidelines for testing and treatment of children with pharyngitis: a retrospective study.

BACKGROUND: Group A streptococcus (GAS) is the most common bacterial etiology of pharyngitis but is difficult to distinguish clinically from viral pharyngitis. There are benefits to early antibacterial treatment of GAS pharyngitis, but administering antibiotics to children with viral pharyngitis is ineffective and costly. We evaluated adherence to guidelines that were developed to help clinicians distinguish between viral and GAS pharyngitis and guide management. METHODS: Retrospective cohort study of patients ages 3-18 who had a rapid streptococcal test and/or throat culture performed in an outpatient setting. We collected data on documentation of components of the McIsaac score and classified tests as indicated if the score was ≥2. Based on McIsaac score and GAS test results, we determined whether each antibiotic course prescribed was indicated according to the Infectious Diseases Society of America guideline. RESULTS: Among 291 eligible children, 87 (30%) had all five components of the McIsaac score documented. There was sufficient data to classify the score as either < 2 or ≥2 in 234 (80%); among these, 96% of tests were indicated. Twenty-nine patients (10%) were prescribed antibiotics. Eight (28%) of these prescriptions were not indicated according to guidelines. CONCLUSIONS: The majority of GAS tests in children with pharyngitis are indicated, although providers do not regularly document all elements of a validated pharyngitis scoring tool. Over one quarter of children prescribed antibiotics for pharyngitis did not require antibiotics according to guidelines. There remains a role for targeted antimicrobial stewardship education regarding pharyngitis management in pediatric outpatient settings.

Ventilator-Associated Events in Neonates and Children--A New Paradigm.

OBJECTIVES: To identify a pediatric ventilator-associated condition definition for use in neonates and children by exploring whether potential ventilator-associated condition definitions identify patients with worse outcomes. DESIGN: Retrospective cohort study and a matched cohort analysis. SETTING: Pediatric, cardiac, and neonatal ICUs in five U.S. hospitals. PATIENTS: Children 18 years old or younger ventilated for at least 1 day. INTERVENTIONS: None. MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS: We evaluated the evidence of worsening oxygenation via a range of thresholds for increases in daily minimum fraction of inspired oxygen (by 0.20, 0.25, and 0.30) and daily minimum mean airway pressure (by 4, 5, 6, and 7 cm H2O). We required worsening oxygenation be sustained for at least 2 days after at least 2 days of stability. We matched patients with a ventilator-associated condition to those without and used Cox proportional hazard models with frailties to examine associations with hospital mortality, hospital and ICU length of stay, and duration of ventilation. The cohort included 8,862 children with 10,209 hospitalizations and 77,751 ventilator days. For the fraction of inspired oxygen 0.25/mean airway pressure 4 definition (i.e., increase in minimum daily fraction of inspired oxygen by 0.25 or mean airway pressure by 4), rates ranged from 2.9 to 3.2 per 1,000 ventilator days depending on ICU type; the fraction of inspired oxygen 0.30/mean airway pressure 7 definition yielded ventilator-associated condition rates of 1.1-1.3 per 1,000 ventilator days. All definitions were significantly associated with greater risk of hospital death, with hazard ratios ranging from 1.6 (95% CI, 0.7-3.4) to 6.8 (2.9-16.0), depending on thresholds and ICU type. Each definition was associated with prolonged hospitalization, time in ICU, and duration of ventilation, among survivors. The advisory board of the study proposed using the fraction of inspired oxygen 0.25/mean airway pressure 4 thresholds to identify pediatric ventilator-associated conditions in ICUs. CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric patients with ventilator-associated conditions are at substantially higher risk for mortality and morbidity across ICUs, regardless of thresholds used. Next steps include identification of risk factors, etiologies, and preventative measures for pediatric ventilator-associated conditions.

Impact and learner perspectives of a spaced-education platform to assess hand hygiene auditor competency.

OBJECTIVE: To ensure whether spaced education, which increases long-term knowledge retention, could be integrated into auditor competency assessment. DESIGN: Quality improvement project. SETTING: Academic, freestanding children's hospital. PARTICIPANTS: Hand hygiene (HH) auditors. INTERVENTION: We enrolled trained HH auditors in an online spaced-education platform to assess mastery of knowledge, delivering 46 unique questions at spaced intervals followed by rationale; we retired questions after 3 correct answers. An e-mailed 10-item survey gauged participant satisfaction with the program. The Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to compare change in median knowledge score from first to final attempt. RESULTS: A total of 12,120 questions were attempted by 126 auditors, and 49 (39%) completed the entire course. Median knowledge score increased significantly by 10.5 percentage points (IQR 4-15) between first and final attempts (P < 0.001). Thirty auditors (27%) responded to the survey. The majority agreed the number and complexity of questions were appropriate (57% and 67%, respectively). Eighty-seven percent reported the platform easy to navigate, and 77% agreed adequate time was provided for completion. Free-text suggestions included delivering fewer questions at a narrower spacing interval over a shorter time frame because of competing work demands. CONCLUSIONS: Auditor knowledge of HH indications and technique is critical to ensuring data validity. A spaced-education competency program improved HH auditor knowledge in the short term. Completion rate was low, and some participants expressed a desire for fewer questions over a shorter time frame. This study offers insight into ways to optimize spaced education as a potential tool for HH competency assessment.

Pediatric Tuberculosis Infection Care Facilitators and Barriers: A Qualitative Study.

BACKGROUND: A total of 700 000 US children and adolescents are estimated to have latent tuberculosis (TB) infection. Identifying facilitators and barriers to engaging in TB infection care is critical to preventing pediatric TB disease. We explored families' and clinicians' perspectives on pediatric TB infection diagnosis and care. METHODS: We conducted individual interviews and small group discussions with primary care and subspecialty clinicians, and individual interviews with caregivers of children diagnosed with TB infection. We sought to elicit facilitators and barriers to TB infection care engagement. We used applied thematic analysis to elucidate themes relating to care engagement, and organized themes using a cascade-grounded pediatric TB infection care engagement framework. RESULTS: We enrolled 19 caregivers and 24 clinicians. Key themes pertaining to facilitators and barriers to care emerged that variably affected engagement at different steps of care. Clinic and health system themes included the application of risk identification strategies and communication of risk; care ecosystem accessibility; programs to reduce cost-related barriers; and medication adherence support. Patient- and family-level themes included TB knowledge and beliefs; trust in clinicians, tests, and medical institutions; behavioral skills; child development and parenting; and family resources. CONCLUSIONS: Risk identification, education techniques, trust, family resources, TB stigma, and care ecosystem accessibility enabled or impeded care cascade engagement. Our results delineate an integrated pediatric TB infection care engagement framework that can inform multilevel interventions to improve retention in the pediatric TB infection care cascade.

Risk factors for central line-associated bloodstream infection in the pediatric intensive care setting despite standard prevention measures.

OBJECTIVE: Identify risk factors for central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) in pediatric intensive care settings in an era with high focus on prevention measures. DESIGN: Matched, case-control study. SETTING: Quaternary children's hospital. PATIENTS: Cases had a CLABSI during an intensive care unit (ICU) stay between January 1, 2015 and December 31, 2020. Controls were matched 4:1 by ICU and admission date and did not develop a CLABSI. METHODS: Multivariable, mixed-effects logistic regression. RESULTS: 129 cases were matched to 516 controls. Central venous catheter (CVC) maintenance bundle compliance was >70%. Independent CLABSI risk factors included administration of continuous non-opioid sedative (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) 2.96, 95% CI [1.16, 7.52], P = 0.023), number of days with one or more CVC in place (aOR 1.42 per 10 days [1.16, 1.74], P = 0.001), and the combination of a chronic CVC with administration of parenteral nutrition (aOR 4.82 [1.38, 16.9], P = 0.014). Variables independently associated with lower odds of CLABSI included CVC location in an upper extremity (aOR 0.16 [0.05, 0.55], P = 0.004); non-tunneled CVC (aOR 0.17 [0.04, 0.63], P = 0.008); presence of an endotracheal tube (aOR 0.21 [0.08, 0.6], P = 0.004), Foley catheter (aOR 0.3 [0.13, 0.68], P = 0.004); transport to radiology (aOR 0.31 [0.1, 0.94], P = 0.039); continuous neuromuscular blockade (aOR 0.29 [0.1, 0.86], P = 0.025); and administration of histamine H2 blocking medications (aOR 0.17 [0.06, 0.48], P = 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Pediatric intensive care patients with chronic CVCs receiving parenteral nutrition, those on non-opioid sedative infusions, and those with more central line days are at increased risk for CLABSI despite current prevention measures.

Vancomycin Use for Pediatric Clostridium difficile Infection Is Increasing and Associated with Specific Patient Characteristics.

In adults with Clostridium difficile infection (CDI), enteral vancomycin is considered the preferred initial regimen for severe disease; however, patterns of antimicrobial use for children with CDI are unknown. We sought to describe trends in and predictors of vancomycin use for the treatment of children with CDI admitted to tertiary-care children's hospitals in the United States. We used a database of freestanding children's hospitals to identify patients 1 to 18 years old with CDI between January 2006 and June 2011. The first hospitalization with a diagnosis of CDI for each patient was identified, and CDI-directed therapy was assessed. Generalized estimating equations were used to identify predictors of vancomycin receipt, controlling for clustering within hospitals. Vancomycin use has increased significantly (P = 0.005), with substantial variability between hospitals (0 to 16%). In multivariate analyses, vancomycin use was more common in children age 7 to 13 years old (versus children 1 to 2 years old: adjusted odds ratio [AOR] = 1.57; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.13 to 2.18), 14 to 18 years old (AOR = 1.40; 95% CI = 1.11 to 1.76), in an ICU (AOR = 1.37; 95% CI = 1.05 to 1.80), or with chronic gastrointestinal conditions (AOR = 2.01; 95% CI = 1.44 to 2.81). Vancomycin use was less common in black (AOR = 0.53; 95% CI = 0.39 to 0.73) and Hispanic (AOR = 0.63; 95% CI = 0.47 to 0.84) patients and in children with malignancies (AOR = 0.57; 95% CI = 0.36 to 0.89). Despite a lack of empirical evidence to suggest superiority, vancomycin use for pediatric CDI is increasing. Furthermore, there is substantial variability in vancomycin use between hospitals. Further studies are needed to explore potential racial and ethnic differences in CDI management and to investigate clinicians' rationale for using vancomycin for initial therapy in selected populations.

Polymerase chain reaction test for Clostridium difficile toxin B gene reveals similar prevalence rates in children with and without inflammatory bowel disease.

OBJECTIVE: Clinicians often evaluate for Clostridium difficile infection (CDI) in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) presenting with exacerbations. A highly sensitive polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test for the toxin B gene of C difficile is increasingly used to diagnose CDI. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence of positive C difficile PCR results in children and young adults with and without active IBD compared with patients with non-IBD gastrointestinal disease. METHODS: Fecal samples were obtained from patients with ulcerative colitis (UC, n = 76) or Crohn disease (CD, n = 69) and 51 controls followed in our gastroenterology program. Samples were analyzed for C difficile using a PCR test for the C difficile toxin B gene (BD GeneOhm Cdiff assay). Proportions of positive tests in each group were compared using the Pearson χ2 test. RESULTS: The prevalence of positive PCR results was 11.6% in patients with CD, 18.4% in patients with UC, and 11.8% in controls (P = 0.25). There were no significant differences in the prevalence of positive C difficile results among patients with IBD with and without active disease or among patients with and without diarrhea. CONCLUSIONS: Positive C difficile PCR results occur with similar frequency in patients with IBD with and without active disease and in patients with other gastrointestinal diseases. A positive result in a highly sensitive PCR assay that detects low copy numbers of a toxin gene in C difficile may reflect colonization in a subset of patients with IBD, confounding clinical decision making in managing disease exacerbations.

Microbiology and risk factors for central line-associated bloodstream infections among pediatric oncology outpatients: a single institution experience of 41 cases.

BACKGROUND: Risk factors for central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) among children with cancer in the outpatient setting remain poorly defined, and the microbiology may differ from hospital-onset CLABSI. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We conducted a matched case-control study of oncology patients followed at the Dana Farber/Children's Hospital Cancer Center. Cases (N=41) were patients with CLABSI as per National Healthcare Safety Network criteria who had not been hospitalized in the preceding 48 hours. For each case we randomly selected 2 oncology outpatients with a central venous catheter and a clinic visit within 30 days of the case subject's CLABSI. Multivariate conditional logistic regression models were used to identify independent risk factors for CLABSI. We compared the microbiology to that of 54 hospital-onset CLABSI occurring at our institution during the study period. RESULTS: Independent predictors of community-onset CLABSI included neutropenia in the prior week (odds ratio 17.46; 95% confidence interval, 4.71-64.67) and tunneled externalized catheter (vs. implantable port; odds ratio 10.30; 95% confidence interval, 2.42-43.95). Nonenteric gram-negative bacteria were more frequently isolated from CLABSI occurring among outpatients. DISCUSSION: Pediatric oncology outpatients with recent neutropenia or tunneled externalized catheters are at increased risk of CLABSI. The microbiology of community-onset CLABSI differs from hospital-onset CLABSI.

Using a human factors framework to assess clinician perceptions of and barriers to high reliability in hand hygiene.

BACKGROUND: Hand hygiene (HH) is critical to prevent health care-associated infections (HAIs). Clinician perspectives on maintaining high reliability are poorly defined. METHODS: We surveyed physicians, nurse practitioners, and physician assistants to understand perceptions of and barriers to high reliability in HH. The Systems Engineering Initiative for Patient Safety 2.0 model was used to develop an electronic survey exploring 6 human factors engineering (HFE) domains. RESULTS: Among 61 respondents, 70% perceived HH as "essential" to patient safety. While 87% reported alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) availability as very effective in improving HH reliability, 77% reported dispensers to be "sometimes" or "often" empty. Clinicians in surgery/anesthesia were more likely than those in medical specialties to note skin irritation from ABHR (OR 4.94; 95% CI 1.37-17.81) and less likely to believe feedback was effective in improving HH (OR 0.26; 95% CI 0.08-0.88). One quarter of respondents indicated the layout of patient care areas was not conducive to performing HH. Staffing shortages and the pace and demands of work precluded HH for 15% and 11% of respondents, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: Aspects of organizational culture, environment, tasks, and tools were identified as barriers to high reliability in HH. HFE principles can be applied to more effectively promote HH.

Interferon Gamma Release Assay Results and Testing Trends Among Patients Younger Than 2 Years Old at Two US Health Centers.

BACKGROUND: Interferon-gamma release assays (IGRAs) are approved for children ≥2 years old to aid in diagnosis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (TB) infection and disease. Tuberculin skin tests (TSTs) continue to be the recommended method for diagnosis of TB infection in children <2 years, in part due to limited data and concern for high rates of uninterpretable results. METHODS: We performed a retrospective cohort study of IGRA use in patients <2 years old in 2 large Boston healthcare systems. The primary outcome was the proportion of valid versus invalid/indeterminate IGRA results. Secondary outcomes included concordance of IGRAs with paired TSTs and trends in IGRA usage over time. RESULTS: A total of 321 IGRA results were analyzed; 308 tests (96%) were valid and 13 (4%) were invalid/indeterminate. Thirty-seven IGRAs were obtained in immunocompromised patients; the proportion of invalid/indeterminate results was significantly higher among immunocompromised (27%) compared with immunocompetent (1%) patients ( P < 0.001). Paired IGRAs and TSTs had a concordance rate of 64%, with most discordant results in bacille Calmette-Guérin-vaccinated patients. The proportion of total TB tests that were IGRAs increased over the study period (Pearson correlation coefficient 0.85, P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: The high proportion of valid IGRA test results in patients <2 years of age in a low TB prevalence setting in combination with the known logistical and interpretation challenges associated with TSTs support the adoption of IGRAs for this age group in certain clinical scenarios. Interpretation of IGRAs, particularly in immunocompromised patients, should involve consideration of the broader clinical context.

Preventing pediatric catheter-associated urinary tract infections utilizing urinary catheter Kamishibai cards (K-cards).

BACKGROUND: We instituted Kamishibai (K-card rounding) with the goals of improving indwelling urinary catheter maintenance bundle reliability and decreasing catheter-associated urinary tract infection (CAUTI) rates. METHOD: In a free-standing children's hospital, we undertook a hospital-wide quality improvement project from January 2019 to June 2021 after developing a K-card based on our urinary catheter maintenance bundle. Auditors used K-cards to ask standardized questions during weekly rounds. Bundle reliability and CAUTI rates were analyzed prospectively. RESULTS: During the study period, 826 K-card audits were performed for 657 unique patients. While overall maintenance bundle reliability remained stable at 84%, there was a statistically significant improvement in reliability to the bundle element "medical discussion of need for the urinary catheter" from 88% to 94% (P = .01). The hospital-wide CAUTI rate significantly decreased (incidence rate ratio, 0.38; 95% CI, 0.15-0.93; P = .04). DISCUSSION: Hospital-wide urinary catheter K-card rounding facilitated standardized data collection, discussion of reliability and real-time feedback to nurses. Maintenance bundle reliability remained stable after implementation, accompanied by a significant decrease in the CAUTI rate. CONCLUSIONS: Implementation of hospital-wide urinary catheter K-card rounding was associated with reduction in CAUTI rates. The project demonstrated likelihood of reproducibility with support of a multidisciplinary team.

Area-Based Sociodemographic Factors Associated with Latent Tuberculosis Infection in a Low-Prevalence Setting.

Area-based sociodemographic markers, such as census tract foreign-born population, have been used to identify individuals and communities with a high risk for tuberculosis (TB) infection in the United States. However, these markers have not been evaluated as independent risk factors for TB infection in children. We evaluated associations between census tract poverty, crowding, foreign-born population, and the CDC's Social Vulnerability Index (CDC-SVI) ranking and TB infection in a population of children tested for TB infection in Boston, Massachusetts. After adjustment for age, crowding, and foreign-born percentage, increasing census tract poverty was associated with increased odds of TB infection (adjusted odds ratio [aOR] per 10% increase in population proportion living in poverty: 1.20 [95% CI, 1.04-1.40]; P = 0.01), although this association was attenuated after further adjustment for preferred language. In separate models, increasing CDC-SVI ranking was associated with increased odds of TB infection, including after adjustment for age and language preference (aOR per 10-point increase in CDC-SVI rank: 1.08 [95% CI, 1.02-1.15]; P = 0.01). Our findings suggest area-based sociodemographic factors may be valuable for characterizing TB infection risk and defining the social ecology of pediatric TB infection in low-burden settings.

Baseline stool toxin concentration is associated with risk of recurrence in children with Clostridioides difficile infection.

BACKGROUND: In adults with Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI), higher stool concentrations of toxins A and B are associated with severe baseline disease, CDI-attributable severe outcomes, and recurrence. We evaluated whether toxin concentration predicts these presentations in children with CDI. METHODS: We conducted a prospective cohort study of inpatients aged 2-17 years with CDI who received treatment. Patients were followed for 40 days after diagnosis for severe outcomes (intensive care unit admission, colectomy, or death, categorized as CDI primarily attributable, CDI contributed, or CDI not contributing) and recurrence. Baseline stool toxin A and B concentrations were measured using ultrasensitive single-molecule array assay, and 12 plasma cytokines were measured when blood was available. RESULTS: We enrolled 187 pediatric patients (median age, 9.6 years). Patients with severe baseline disease by IDSA-SHEA criteria (n = 34) had nonsignificantly higher median stool toxin A+B concentration than those without severe disease (n = 122; 3,217.2 vs 473.3 pg/mL; P = .08). Median toxin A+B concentration was nonsignificantly higher in children with a primarily attributed severe outcome (n = 4) versus no severe outcome (n = 148; 19,472.6 vs 429.1 pg/mL; P = .301). Recurrence occurred in 17 (9.4%) of 180 patients. Baseline toxin A+B concentration was significantly higher in patients with versus without recurrence: 4,398.8 versus 280.8 pg/mL (P = .024). Plasma granulocyte colony-stimulating factor concentration was significantly higher in CDI patients versus non-CDI diarrhea controls: 165.5 versus 28.5 pg/mL (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Higher baseline stool toxin concentrations are present in children with CDI recurrence. Toxin quantification should be included in CDI treatment trials to evaluate its use in severity assessment and outcome prediction.