Influence of obstacle color on locomotor and gaze behaviors during obstacle avoidance in people with Parkinson's disease.

The color of an obstacle may enable a more detailed view of the environment to facilitate obstacle avoidance. However, people with Parkinson's disease (PD) present visual contrast and color detection dysfunction, which could affect obstacle avoidance according to obstacle color. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate the influence of obstacle color on locomotor and gaze behavior during obstacle avoidance in people with PD and neurologically healthy older individuals. Thirteen people with PD and eleven matched-control group individuals, with normal visual acuity (20/20 on the Snellen chart), performed 20 trials (5 trials for each obstacle color condition) of the obstacle avoidance task with the following obstacle colors: white, black, red, and blue. Participants were positioned at the beginning of a walkway with their eyes closed and, after the start command, opened their eyes, started walking at their preferred velocity, and crossed the obstacle. Spatial-temporal parameters and fixations on the obstacle (gaze behavior) were measured using a three-dimensional camera system and mobile eye-tracker, respectively. Our main findings were the absence of significant color interaction on locomotor and gaze behaviors, the absence of significant main effect of color on gaze behavior, and an effect of obstacle color on locomotor behavior, specifically in the placement of the heel from the obstacle after crossing and toe-clearance for both trailing and leading limbs, which indicates that obstacle color can play a role in obstacle avoidance during walking. However, there was no consistent obstacle color that influenced the locomotor behavior. Therefore, the conclusion of this study is that obstacle color seems to affect locomotor behavior, but not gaze behavior, during walking with obstacle avoidance in people with PD and neurologically healthy individuals. However, no particular obstacle color causes a consistent effect on locomotor behavior.

Postural control of prolonged standing in people with Parkinson's disease.

People with Parkinson's disease (pwPD) have reduced adaptability to postural control during prolonged standing compared to neurologically healthy individuals (control). Objective. The study aimed to characterize postural changes during prolonged standing and their effect on postural control in pwPD compared to control. We recorded the body sway of the second lumbar vertebra of 23 pwPD and 23 control while they performed prolonged standing (15 min). The number and amplitude of the body sway patterns (shifts, fidgets, and drifts), the root mean square, velocity, and frequency of the body sway were analyzed. The number of shifts in the anterior-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) directions was greater for the pwPD than the control. In addition, the amplitudes of shifts in the AP direction and fidgets in the AP and ML directions were greater for the pwPD than the control. Our results show that: (1) A larger number of shifts of body sway suggest references positions are frequently changing; (2) Fidgets is a pumping mechanism and can be sensory-demand action to restore mechanoreceptors activity on the foot sole; and (3) No drift changes may suggest there is no slow migration of reference position. We conclude that pwPD exhibits different behavior than healthy ones during prolonged standing, suggesting that prolonged standing could distinguish individuals with Parkinson's disease.

Hemodynamics of the Frontopolar and Dorsolateral Pre-Frontal Cortex in People with Multiple Sclerosis During Walking, Cognitive Subtraction, and Cognitive-Motor Dual-Task.

INTRODUCTION: Higher cortical activity has been observed in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) during walking and dual-tasking. However, further studies in overground walking and considering pre-frontal cortex (PFC) sub-areas are necessary. OBJECTIVES: To investigate PFC activity during a cognitive-motor dual-task (DT) and its single component tasks, in combination with behavioral outcomes in pwMS. METHODS: Fifteen pwMS (EDSS 3.5 [2-5.5], 42 ± 11 years) and 16 healthy controls (HC, 45.2 ± 13.2 years) performed 3 conditions: single motor-walking (SWT), single cognitive - subtracting sevens (SCT), and a DT. Meters walked and the number of correct answers were obtained from which, respectively, the motor (mDTC) and cognitive (cDTC) DT costs were calculated. A functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy covering the frontopolar and dorsolateral PFC (DLPFC) areas was used to concentration of relative oxyhemoglobin (ΔHbO2) and deoxyhemoglobin (ΔHHb) in the PFC. A repeated 2-way ANOVA (group × conditions) was used to compare ΔHbO2/ΔHHb and behavioral outcomes. RESULTS: PwMS walked shorter distances (P < .002) and answered fewer correct numbers (P < .03) than HC in all conditions, while cDTC and mDTC were similar between groups. PwMS presented higher ΔHbO2 in the frontopolar area than HC in the SWT (P < .001). HC increased ΔHbO2 in frontopolar during the SCT (P < .029) and DT (P < .037) compared with the SWT. CONCLUSION: Higher frontopolar activity in pwMS compared to HC in the SWT suggests reduced gait automaticity. Furthermore, it seems that only HC increased neural activity in the frontopolar in the SCT and DT, which might suggest a limit of cognitive resources to respond to DT in pwMS.

Between-Day Reliability of the Gait Characteristics and Their Changes During the 6-Minute Walking Test in People With Multiple Sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Gait characteristics and their changes during the 6-minute walking test (6MWT) in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS) have been described in the literature, which one may refer to as walking fatigability in the body function level of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health. However, whether these metrics are reliable is unknown. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the between-day reliability of the gait characteristics and their changes in pwMS and healthy controls (HCs). METHODS: Forty-nine pwMS (EDSS 4.82 ± 1.22 and 54.7 ± 9.36 years) and 23 HCs (50.6 ± 6.1 years) performed the 6MWT, as fast as possible but safely while wearing Inertial Measurement Units. Gait characteristics were measured in the pace, rhythm, variability, asymmetry, kinematics, coordination, and postural control domains and were obtained in intervals of 1 minute during the 6MWT. In addition, gait characteristics change in the last minute compared with the first minute were calculated for all gait variables using a fatigability index (ie, distance walking index). The intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), Bland-Altman Plots, and Standard error of measurement were applied to investigate reliability. RESULTS: Reliability of gait characteristics, minute-by-minute, and for their changes (ie, using the fatigability index) ranged from poor to excellent (pwMS: ICC 0.46-0.96; HC: ICC 0.09-0.97 and pwMS: ICC 0-0.72; HC: ICC 0-0.77, respectively). CONCLUSION: Besides coordination, at least 1 variable of each gait domain showed an ICC of moderate or good reliability for gait characteristics changes in both pwMS and HC. These metrics can be incorporated into future clinical trials and research on walking fatigability.Clinical Trial Registration: NCT05412043.

(A)symmetry during gait initiation in people with Parkinson's disease: A motor and cortical activity exploratory study.

Background: Gait asymmetry and deficits in gait initiation (GI) are among the most disabling symptoms in people with Parkinson's disease (PwPD). Understanding if PwPD with reduced asymmetry during GI have higher asymmetry in cortical activity may provide support for an adaptive mechanism to improve GI, particularly in the presence of an obstacle. Objective: This study quantified the asymmetry of anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs), stepping parameters and cortical activity during GI, and tested if the presence of an obstacle regulates asymmetry in PwPD. Methods: Sixteen PwPD and 16 control group (CG) performed 20-trials in two conditions: unobstructed and obstructed GI with right and left limbs. We measured, through symmetry index, (i) motor parameters: APAs and stepping, and (ii) cortical activity: the PSD of the frontal, sensorimotor and occipital areas during APA, STEP-I (moment of heel-off of the leading foot in the GI until the heel contact of the same foot); and STEP-II (moment of the heel-off of the trailing foot in the GI until the heel contact of the same foot) phases. Results: Parkinson's disease showed higher asymmetry in cortical activity during APA, STEP-I and STEP-II phases and step velocity (STEP-II phase) during unobstructed GI than CG. However, unexpectedly, PwPD reduced the level of asymmetry of anterior-posterior displacement (p < 0.01) and medial-lateral velocity (p < 0.05) of the APAs. Also, when an obstacle was in place, PwPD showed higher APAs asymmetry (medial-lateral velocity: p < 0.002), with reduced and increased asymmetry of the cortical activity during APA and STEP-I phases, respectively. Conclusion: Parkinson's disease were not motor asymmetric during GI, indicating that higher cortical activity asymmetry can be interpreted as an adaptive behavior to reduce motor asymmetry. In addition, the presence of obstacle did not regulate motor asymmetry during GI in PwPD.

The Blood Concentration of Metallic Nanoparticles Is Related to Cognitive Performance in People with Multiple Sclerosis: An Exploratory Analysis.

The imbalance in the concentration of metallic nanoparticles has been demonstrated to play an important role in multiple sclerosis (MS), which may impact cognition. Biomarkers are needed to provide insights into the pathogenesis and diagnosis of MS. They can be used to gain a better understanding of cognitive decline in people with MS (pwMS). In this study, we investigated the relationship between the blood concentration of metallic nanoparticles (blood nanoparticles) and cognitive performance in pwMS. First, four mL blood samples, clinical characteristics, and cognitive performance were obtained from 21 pwMS. All participants had relapse-remitting MS, with a score of ≤4.5 points in the expanded disability status scale. They were relapse-free in the three previous months from the day of collection and had no orthopedic, muscular, cardiac, and cerebellar diseases. We quantified the following metallic nanoparticles: aluminum, chromium, copper, iron, magnesium, nickel, zinc, and total concentration. Cognitive performance was measured by mini-mental state examination (MMSE) and the symbol digit modalities test (SDMT). Pearson's and Spearman's correlation coefficients and stepwise linear regression were calculated to assess the relationship between cognitive performance and blood nanoparticles. We found that better performance in SDMT and MMSE was related to higher total blood nanoparticles (r = 0.40; p < 0.05). Also, better performance in cognitive processing speed and attention (SDMT) and mental state (MMSE) were related to higher blood iron (r = 0.44; p < 0.03) and zinc concentrations (r = 0.41; p < 0.05), respectively. The other metallic nanoparticles (aluminum, chromium, copper, magnesium, and nickel) did not show a significant relationship with the cognitive parameters (p > 0.05). Linear regression estimated a significant association between blood iron concentration and SDMT performance. In conclusion, blood nanoparticles are related to cognitive performance in pwMS. Our findings suggest that the blood concentration of metallic nanoparticles, particularly the iron concentration, is a promising biomarker for monitoring cognitive impairment in pwMS.

A multiple domain postural control assessment in people with Parkinson's disease: traditional, non-linear, and rambling and trembling trajectories analysis.

BACKGROUND: Postural impairment is one of the most debilitating symptoms in people with Parkinson's disease (PD), which show faster and more variable oscillation during quiet stance than neurologically healthy individuals. Despite the center of pressure parameters can characterize PD's body sway, they are limited to uncover underlying mechanisms of postural stability and instability. RESEARCH QUESTION: Do a multiple domain analysis, including postural adaptability and rambling and trembling components, explain underlying postural stability and instability mechanisms in people with PD? METHOD: Twenty-four individuals (12 people with PD and 12 neurologically healthy peers) performed three 60-s trials of upright quiet standing on a force platform. Traditional and non-linear parameters (Detrended Fluctuation Analysis- DFA and Multiscale Entropy- MSE) and rambling and trembling trajectories were calculated for anterior-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) directions. RESULTS: PDG's postural control was worse compared to CG, displaying longer displacement, higher velocity, and RMS. Univariate analyses revealed largely longer displacement and RMS only for the AP direction and largely higher velocity for both AP and ML directions. Also, PD individuals showed lower AP complexity, higher AP and ML DFA, and increased AP and ML displacement, velocity, and RMS of rambling and trembling components compared to neurologically healthy individuals. SIGNIFICANCE: Based upon these results, people with PD have a lower capacity to adapt posture and impaired both rambling and trembling components compared to neurologically healthy individuals. These findings provide new insights to explain the larger, faster, and more variable sway in people with PD.

Is BDNF related to spatial-temporal gait parameters in people with multiple sclerosis? An observational study.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that the protein Brain-derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF) plays a neuroprotective role in people with multiple sclerosis (pwMS). Also, BDNF seems to play a role in cognition performance. In the same line, gait in pwMS requires a higher cognitive resource, mainly during complex walking. Thus, maybe BDNF could be related to gait in pwMS. OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationship between BDNF and gait spatial-temporal parameters during unobstructed and obstructed conditions and the Timed Up and Go (TUG) in pwMS and healthy controls (HC). METHODS: The study included 20 pwMS (11F/9M, 33.1±7.5 years, Expanded Disability Status Scale- EDSS 2.2±1.2) and 18 HC (13F/5M, 35.5±5.9 years). Both groups performed 20 gait attempts in two conditions: unobstructed walking (10 trials) and avoiding an obstacle. The obstacle was 15 cm in height and made of foam material. The BDNF serum concentration was collected with participants in fasting and completed before the clinical, gait, and mobility assessments. Clinical variables included the Symbol Digit Modality Test (SDMT), the Fatigue Severity Scale (FSS), and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ- short version). Associations between BDNF and spatial-temporal gait parameters, clinical variables, and TUG were determined by Pearson/Spearman correlations with Bonferroni's correction being applied (p<0.0013). Gait was compared by a two-way, repeated-measures ANOVA (group and condition) to characterize our cohort. RESULTS: Reduced BDNF was observed for pwMS (41.66±4.45 ng/ml) in comparison with HC (61.67±7.07, p<0.001). However, although some correlations presented a moderate correlation between BDNF with gait variables, the correlations didn't reach a significant p-value after Bonferroni's correction. Lastly, pwMS presented shorter step length and slower step velocity for both gait conditions, with more evidence for obstacle conditions. Only pwMS changed gait behavior from unobstructed walking to obstacle avoidance conditions (i.e., reduced step length and velocity and increased step duration). CONCLUSION: BDNF is not related to either clinical (i.e., EDSS, SDMT, FSS, or IPAQ) or gait parameters in pwMS and HC, even in a condition involving higher cognitive demand. These results may suggest that BDNF does not play a role in these parameters' performance.

Step length synergy while crossing obstacles is weaker in patients with Parkinson's disease.

BACKGROUND: Impaired movement stability is a common symptom of Parkinson's disease (PD) that leads to falls and mishandled objects. Decline in synergistic stabilization of movement in PD patients has been observed in manual and postural tasks. However, locomotor synergies have not been quantified in PD patients. RESEARCH QUESTION: The purpose of this work was to quantify the strength of the synergy stabilizing the step length while crossing an obstacle in PD patients. We hypothesized that (1) the distances of the front and rear feet relative to the obstacle would display compensatory across-trial co-variance that stabilizes step length in PD patients and age-matched controls, and (2) the step-length stabilization would be weaker in PD patients. METHODS: Thirteen PD patients and eleven healthy age-matched controls walked up to and stepped over a 15 cm high obstacle fifteen times.We measured the distances of the rear and front foot toes from the obstacle during the crossing step. We used the uncontrolled manifold method to parse the across-trial variance in toe distances into a component that maintains the step length and a component that changes the step length. These variance components yielded the synergy index that quantified the stability of step length. RESULTS: Step length was stabilized in PD patients as well as controls. However, the synergy index was 53% lower in the PD patients (p < 0.01). Thus, both our hypotheses were supported. SIGNIFICANCE: This is the first study reporting impaired locomotor synergies in PD patients. Most PD patients in our sample were early stage (10 out of 13 patients were Hoehn-Yahr ≤ 2). Therefore, this result motivates further studies to establish step-length synergy during adaptive locomotor tasks as a biomarker for early detection of locomotor impairments in PD patients.

Prolonged Standing Task Affects Adaptability of Postural Control in People With Parkinson's Disease.

BACKGROUND: Studies on short-term upright quiet standing tasks have presented contradictory findings about postural control in people with Parkinson's disease (pwPD). Prolonged trial durations might better depict body sway and discriminate pwPD and controls. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to investigate postural control in pwPD during a prolonged standing task. METHODS: A total of 26 pwPD and 25 neurologically healthy individuals performed 3 quiet standing trials (60 s) before completing a constrained prolonged standing task for 15 minutes. Motion capture was used to record body sway (Vicon, 100 Hz). To investigate the body sway behavior during the 15 minutes of standing, the analysis was divided into three 5-minute-long phases: early, middle, and late. The following body sway parameters were calculated for the anterior-posterior (AP) and medial-lateral (ML) directions: velocity, root-mean-square, and detrended fluctuations analysis (DFA). The body sway area was also calculated. Two-way ANOVAs (group and phases) and 1-way ANOVA (group) were used to compare these parameters for the prolonged standing and quiet standing, respectively. RESULTS: pwPD presented smaller sway area (P < .001), less complexity (DFA; AP: P < .009; ML: P < .01), and faster velocity (AP: P < .002; ML: P < .001) of body sway compared with the control group during the prolonged standing task. Although the groups swayed similarly (no difference for sway area) during quiet standing, they presented differences in sway area during the prolonged standing task (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS: Prolonged standing task reduced adaptability of the postural control system in pwPD. In addition, the prolonged standing task may better analyze the adaptability of the postural control system in pwPD.

Cortical activity and gait parameter characteristics in people with multiple sclerosis during unobstructed gait and obstacle avoidance.

BACKGROUND: People with Multiple Sclerosis (PwMS) present higher cortical activity during walking. However, the cortical activity during gait while avoiding an obstacle is still not clear. OBJECTIVE: To investigate cortical activity and gait spatial-temporal parameters in PwMS during two different gait tasks (i.e., unobstructed and obstacle avoidance). METHOD: Fifteen PwMS and 15 healthy controls (CG) were recruited. Participants performed ten trials in each gait condition, wearing a 64-electrode cap electroencephalogram (EEG) at 1024 Hz. Kinematic data were obtained through 10 Vicon® cameras at 200 Hz. EEG was analyzed through four cortical areas (frontal, motor, parietal, and occipital cortex areas) and five frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, beta, and gamma) obtained through the power spectral density. In addition, spatial-temporal gait parameters (e.g., step length and velocity) were measured. Two-way ANOVA (group x gait condition) and MANOVA (group x gait condition) were used to compare gait and EEG parameters, respectively. One-way ANOVA was used to compare groups in the crossing phase of the obstacle avoidance condition. RESULTS: PwMS presented lower step length and velocity, and higher cortical activity in frontal (beta and gamma) and parietal (gamma) cortical areas in both gait conditions compared to CG. Moreover, PwMS presented increased cortical activation (frontal and parietal) and decreased step length and velocity in obstacle avoidance compared with unobstructed gait. In addition, PwMS required more cortical resources (frontal and parietal) than CG to accomplish both gait conditions. During the obstacle avoidance task, it was further observed that PwMS positioned their feet closer to the obstacle, before and after the task, compared to CG. CONCLUSION: PwMS demand higher cortical resources to accomplish gait tasks, mainly when it is necessary to negotiate an obstacle in the pathway. This higher cortical activity may be a compensatory mechanism to deal with damage in subcortical structures caused by multiple sclerosis.

Motor strategy during postural control is not muscle fatigue joint-dependent, but muscle fatigue increases postural asymmetry.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of ankle and hip muscle fatigue on motor adjustments (experiment 1) and symmetry (experiment 2) of postural control during a quiet standing task. Twenty-three young adults performed a bipedal postural task on separate force platforms, before and after a bilateral ankle and hip muscle fatigue protocol (randomized). Ankle and hip muscles were fatigued separately using a standing calf raise protocol (ankle fatigue) on a step and flexion and extension of the hip (hip fatigue) sitting on a chair, at a controlled movement frequency (0.5Hz), respectively. In both experiments, force, center of pressure, and electromyography parameters were measured. The symmetry index was used in experiment 2 to analyze the postural asymmetry in the parameters. Our main findings showed that muscle fatigue impaired postural stability, regardless of the fatigued muscle region (i.e., ankle or hip). In addition, young adults used an ankle motor strategy (experiment 1) before and after both the ankle and hip muscle fatigue protocols. Moreover, we found increased asymmetry between the lower limbs (experiment 2) during the quiet standing task after muscle fatigue. Thus, we can conclude that the postural motor strategy is not muscle fatigue joint-dependent and a fatigue task increases postural asymmetry, regardless of the fatigued region (hip or ankle). These findings could be applied in sports training and rehabilitation programs with the objective of reducing the fatigue effects on asymmetry and improving balance.

Saccadic eye movements are able to reduce body sway in mildly-affected people with Multiple Sclerosis.

BACKGROUND: Multiple Sclerosis (MS) is a neurodegenerative and inflammatory disease that impacts both visual and postural control. It is currently unknown how the integration between visual and postural control is affected in people with MS (PwMS). It has been shown in healthy individuals that saccadic eye movements can decrease body sway as result as the integration of eye and postural movements. OBJECTIVE: Investigate the effect of saccadic eye movement on postural control in PwMS and compare with neurologically healthy people. METHODS: Thirteen mildly affected PwMS (1.53 ± 1.03 on Expanded Disability Status Scale - EDSS) and 12 healthy neurologically people participated in this study. Postural control was assessed on a force platform under two eye movement conditions: fixation on a central target and saccadic eye movement. The dependent variables assessed were the displacement, velocity, root-mean-square (RMS) and area of postural center of pressure and the number, duration, variability, fixations errors and eye response time. A mobile eye tracker was used to record eye movement. Two-way ANOVA (group and eye movement) for postural variables was performed. For the eye variables, one-way ANOVA with factor to group was performed. The p-value was maintained at 0.05 for all statistical analysis and the effect sizes were based on Cohen's d. RESULTS: No group or interaction effects (group*eye movement) were found for postural and eye variables. However, the saccadic eye movement attenuated the postural displacement in anteroposterior (AP) direction (p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 4.677), RMS AP (p < 0.001, Cohen's d = 4.399) and area (p < 0.013, Cohen's d = 2.163) in comparison with the central fixation condition in both groups. The Cohen's d showed a large effect between groups for fixation errors (d = 0.741). CONCLUSION: Both groups presented similar postural control performance in both eye movement conditions. Moreover, PwMS could attenuate body sway similarly to the control group, showing that the central integration of dynamic eye movements and postural control is preserved in mildly affected PwMS.

The importance of promoting physical activity and exercise training as adjuvant therapy for people with multiple sclerosis

Abstract Aim: This review aimed to provide evidence and highlight the importance of including physical activity (PA) and/or exercise training (ET) as part of the comprehensive multiple sclerosis (MS) care. Methods: Using the current literature on the subject, we provide a brief overview of MS incorporating its definition, common symptoms, prevalence, and potential disease consequences. We further succinctly describe MS as the first line of treatment, as well as the role of PA and ET in the disease. We end the commentary highlighting important recommendations from an international initiative to improve MS-related physical activity research that we believe will help not only improve the area of study but also best practices within this population. Results: There is compelling evidence for the beneficial effects of PA and/or ET on MS-related symptoms and consequently health and quality of life. There is preliminary evidence suggesting the potential for a disease-modifying effect. Conclusion: Fomenting this discussion is timely due to the increased prevalence of MS in different regions of the globe, and people with MS report low levels of PA participation and high amounts of sedentary time. The consequences of inactivity in this population can be drastic. The current body of evidence supports the notion that PA and ET are safe health behaviors that should be adopted as an adjuvant treatment option within the comprehensive and complex MS care due to its benefits on a variety of disease-related symptoms and its potential for improving health and quality of life in this population.