Coronavirus Lung Infection Impairs Host Immunity against Secondary Bacterial Infection by Promoting Lysosomal Dysfunction.

Postviral bacterial infections are a major health care challenge in coronavirus infections, including COVID-19; however, the coronavirus-specific mechanisms of increased host susceptibility to secondary infections remain unknown. In humans, coronaviruses, including SARS-CoV-2, infect lung immune cells, including alveolar macrophages, a phenotype poorly replicated in mouse models of SARS-CoV-2. To overcome this, we used a mouse model of native murine ß-coronavirus that infects both immune and structural cells to investigate coronavirus-enhanced susceptibility to bacterial infections. Our data show that coronavirus infection impairs the host ability to clear invading bacterial pathogens and potentiates lung tissue damage in mice. Mechanistically, coronavirus limits the bacterial killing ability of macrophages by impairing lysosomal acidification and fusion with engulfed bacteria. In addition, coronavirus-induced lysosomal dysfunction promotes pyroptotic cell death and the release of IL-1ß. Inhibition of cathepsin B decreased cell death and IL-1ß release and promoted bacterial clearance in mice with postcoronavirus bacterial infection.

VISTA (PD-1H) Is a Crucial Immune Regulator to Limit Pulmonary Fibrosis.

VISTA (V domain immunoglobulin suppressor of T cell activation, also called PD-1H [programmed death-1 homolog]), a novel immune regulator expressed on myeloid and T lymphocyte lineages, is upregulated in mouse and human idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF). However, the significance of VISTA and its therapeutic potential in regulating IPF has yet to be defined. To determine the role of VISTA and its therapeutic potential in IPF, the expression profile of VISTA was evaluated from human single-cell RNA sequencing data (IPF Cell Atlas). Inflammatory response and lung fibrosis were assessed in bleomycin-induced experimental pulmonary fibrosis models in VISTA-deficient mice compared with wild-type littermates. In addition, these outcomes were evaluated after VISTA agonistic antibody treatment in the wild-type pulmonary fibrosis mice. VISTA expression was increased in lung tissue-infiltrating monocytes of patients with IPF. VISTA was induced in the myeloid population, mainly circulating monocyte-derived macrophages, during bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis. Genetic ablation of VISTA drastically promoted pulmonary fibrosis, and bleomycin-induced fibroblast activation was dependent on the interaction between VISTA-expressing myeloid cells and fibroblasts. Treatment with VISTA agonistic antibody reduced fibrotic phenotypes accompanied by the suppression of lung innate immune and fibrotic mediators. In conclusion, these results suggest that VISTA upregulation in pulmonary fibrosis may be a compensatory mechanism to limit inflammation and fibrosis, and stimulation of VISTA signaling using VISTA agonists effectively limits the fibrotic innate immune landscape and consequent tissue fibrosis. Further studies are warranted to test VISTA as a novel therapeutic target for the IPF treatment.

Distinct Roles of Type I and Type III Interferons during a Native Murine ß Coronavirus Lung Infection.

Coronaviruses are a major health care threat to humankind. Currently, the host factors that contribute to limit disease severity in healthy young patients are not well defined. Interferons are key antiviral molecules, especially type I and type III interferons. The role of these interferons during coronavirus disease is a subject of debate. Here, using mice that are deficient in type I (IFNAR1-/-), type III (IFNLR1-/-), or both (IFNAR1/LR1-/-) interferon signaling pathways and murine-adapted coronavirus (MHV-A59) administered through the intranasal route, we define the role of interferons in coronavirus infection. We show that type I interferons play a major role in host survival in this model, while a minimal role of type III interferons was manifested only in the absence of type I interferons or during a lethal dose of coronavirus. IFNAR1-/- and IFNAR1/LR1-/- mice had an uncontrolled viral burden in the airways and lung and increased viral dissemination to other organs. The absence of only type III interferon signaling had no measurable difference in the viral load. The increased viral load in IFNAR1-/- and IFNAR1/LR1-/- mice was associated with increased tissue injury, especially evident in the lung and liver. Type I but not type III interferon treatment was able to promote survival if treated during early disease. Further, we show that type I interferon signaling in macrophages contributes to the beneficial effects during coronavirus infection in mice. IMPORTANCE The antiviral and pathological potential of type I and type III interferons during coronavirus infection remains poorly defined, and opposite findings have been reported. We report that both type I and type III interferons have anticoronaviral activities, but their potency and organ specificity differ. Type I interferon deficiency rendered the mice susceptible to even a sublethal murine coronavirus infection, while the type III interferon deficiency impaired survival only during a lethal infection or during a sublethal infection in the absence of type I interferon signaling. While treatment with both type I and III interferons promoted viral clearance in the airways and lung, only type I interferons promoted the viral clearance in the liver and improved host survival upon early treatment (12 h postinfection). This study demonstrates distinct roles and potency of type I and type III interferons and their therapeutic potential during coronavirus lung infection.

PINK1 Inhibits Multimeric Aggregation and Signaling of MAVS and MAVS-Dependent Lung Pathology.

Mitochondria have emerged as important signaling organelles where intracellular perturbations are integrated and, consequently, intracellular signaling pathways are modulated to execute appropriate cellular functions. MAVS (mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein) represents such an example that functions as a platform molecule to mediate mitochondrial innate immune signaling. Recently, multimeric aggregation of MAVS has been identified as a key molecular process for its signaling. The underlying mechanisms to regulate this, however, are still incompletely understood. We hypothesized that PINK1 (PTEN-induced kinase 1) plays an important role in the regulation of multimeric MAVS aggregation and its consequent pathobiology. To test whether PINK1 interacts with MAVS, bimolecular fluorescence complementation analysis and IP were performed. RLH (RIG-I-like helicase) and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling were evaluated by in vitro assay. In vivo functional significance of PINK1 in the regulation of MAVS signaling was evaluated from both murine modeling of influenza viral infection and bleomycin-induced experimental pulmonary fibrosis, wherein MAVS plays important roles. Multimeric MAVS aggregation was induced by mitochondria dysfunction, and, during this event, the stabilized PINK1 interacted physically with MAVS and antagonized multimeric MAVS aggregation. Accordingly, the MAVS-mediated antiviral innate immune and NLRP3 inflammasome signaling were enhanced in PINK1 deficiency. In addition, in vivo studies revealed that MAVS-mediated pulmonary antiviral innate immune responses and fibrotic responses after bleomycin injury were enhanced in PINK1 deficiency. In conclusion, these results establish a new role of PINK1 in the regulation of MAVS signaling and the consequent pulmonary pathobiology.

Mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein is crucial for the development of pulmonary fibrosis.

Danger signals, or damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), instigate mitochondrial innate immune responses wherein mitochondrial antiviral signaling protein (MAVS) functions as a key platform molecule to mediate them. The role of MAVS in the pathogenesis of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF), however, has not yet been identified. Whether MAVS signalling can be modulated by currently existing drugs has also not been explored.We used an established model of pulmonary fibrosis to demonstrate that MAVS is a critical mediator of multiple DAMP signalling pathways and the consequent lung fibrosis after bleomycin-induced injury in vivoAfter bleomycin injury, MAVS expression was mainly observed in macrophages. Multimeric MAVS aggregation, a key event of MAVS signalling activation, was significantly increased and persisted in bleomycin-injured lungs. A proapoptotic BH3 mimetic, ABT-263, attenuated the expression of MAVS and its signalling and, consequently, the development of experimental pulmonary fibrosis. In contrast, the therapeutic effects of nintedanib and pirfenidone, two drugs approved for IPF treatment, were not related to the modulation of MAVS or its signalling. Multimeric MAVS aggregation was significantly increased in lungs from IPF patients as well.MAVS may play an important role in the development of pulmonary fibrosis, and targeting MAVS with BH3 mimetics may provide a novel and much needed therapeutic strategy for IPF.

Transcriptome sequencing of the endangered land snail Karaftohelix adamsi from the Island Ulleung: De novo assembly, annotation, valuation of fitness genes and SSR markers.

BACKGROUND: The Bradybaenidae snail Karaftohelix adamsi is endemic to Korea, with the species tracked from Island Ulleung in North Gyeongsang Province of South Korea. K. adamsi has been classified under the Endangered Wildlife Class II species of Korea and poses a severe risk of extinction following habitat disturbances. With no available information at the DNA (genome) or mRNA (transcriptome) level for the species, conservation by utilizing informed molecular resources seems difficult. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we used the Illumina short-read sequencing and Trinity de novo assembly to draft the reference transcriptome of K. adamsi. RESULTS: After assembly, 13,753 unigenes were obtained of which 10,511 were annotated to public databases (a maximum of 10,165 unigenes found homologs in PANM DB). A total of 6,351, 3,535, 358, and 3,407 unigenes were ascribed to the functional categories under KOG, GO, KEGG, and IPS, respectively. The transcripts such as the HSP 70, aquaporin, TLR, and MAPK, among others, were screened as putative functional resources for adaptation. DNA transposons were found to be thickly populated in comparison to retrotransposons in the assembled unigenes. Further, 2,164 SSRs were screened with the promiscuous presence of dinucleotide repeats such as AC/GT and AG/CT. CONCLUSION: The transcriptome-guided discovery of molecular resources in K. adamsi will not only serve as a basis for functional genomics studies but also provide sustainable tools to be utilized for the protection of the species in the wild. Moreover, the development of polymorphic SSRs is valuable for the identification of species from newer habitats and cross-species genotyping.

A review of the endangered mollusks transcriptome under the threatened species initiative of Korea.

Transcriptome studies for conservation of endangered mollusks is a proactive approach towards managing threats and uncertainties facing these species in natural environments. The population of these species is declining due to habitat destruction, illicit wildlife trade, and global climate change. These activities risk the free movement of species across the wild landscape, loss of breeding grounds, and restrictions in displaying the physiological attributes so crucial for faunal welfare. Gastropods face the most negative ecological effects and have been enlisted under Korea's protective species consortium based on their population dynamics in the last few years. Moreover, with the genetic resources restricted for such species, conservation by informed planning is not possible. This review provides insights into the activities under the threatened species initiative of Korea with special reference to the transcriptome assemblies of endangered mollusks. The gastropods such as Ellobium chinense, Aegista chejuensis, Aegista quelpartensis, Incilaria fruhstorferi, Koreanohadra kurodana, Satsuma myomphala, and Clithon retropictus have been represented. Moreover, the transcriptome summary of bivalve Cristaria plicata and Caenogastropoda Charonia lampas sauliae is also discussed. Sequencing, de novo assembly, and annotation identified transcripts or homologs for the species and, based on an understanding of the biochemical and molecular pathways, were ascribed to predictive gene function. Mining for simple sequence repeats from the transcriptome have successfully assisted genetic polymorphism studies. A comparison of the transcriptome scheme of Korean endangered mollusks with the genomic resources of other endangered mollusks have been discussed with homologies and analogies for dictating future research.

Transcriptome analysis of Haemaphysalis flava female using Illumina HiSeq 4000 sequencing: de novo assembly, functional annotation and discovery of SSR markers.

BACKGROUND: Ticks are ectoparasites capable of directly damaging their hosts and transmitting vector-borne diseases. The ixodid tick Haemaphysalis flava has a broad distribution that extends from East to South Asia. This tick is a reservoir of severe fever with thrombocytopenia syndrome virus (SFTSV) that causes severe hemorrhagic disease, with cases reported from China, Japan and South Korea. Recently, the distribution of H. flava in South Korea was found to overlap with the occurrence of SFTSV. METHODS: This study was undertaken to discover the molecular resources of H. flava female ticks using the Illumina HiSeq 4000 system, the Trinity de novo sequence assembler and annotation against public databases. The locally curated Protostome database (PANM-DB) was used to screen the putative adaptation-related transcripts classified to gene families, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme, aquaporin, adenylate cyclase, AMP-activated protein kinase, glutamate receptors, heat shock proteins, molecular chaperones, insulin receptor, mitogen-activated protein kinase and solute carrier family proteins. Also, the repeats and simple sequence repeats (SSRs) were screened from the unigenes using RepeatMasker (v4.0.6) and MISA (v1.0) software tools, followed by the designing of SSRs flanking primers using BatchPrimer 3 (v1.0) software. RESULTS: The transcriptome produced a total of 69,822 unigenes, of which 46,175 annotated to the homologous proteins in the PANM-DB. The unigenes were also mapped to the EuKaryotic Orthologous Groups (KOG), Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) and Gene Ontology (GO) specializations. Promiscuous presence of protein kinase, zinc finger (C2H2-type), reverse transcriptase, and RNA recognition motif domains was observed in the unigenes. A total of 3480 SSRs were screened, of which 1907 and 1274 were found as tri- and dinucleotide repeats, respectively. A list of primer sequences flanking the SSR motifs was detailed for validation of polymorphism in H. flava and the related tick species. CONCLUSIONS: The reference transcriptome information on H. flava female ticks will be useful for an enriched understanding of tick biology, its competency to act as a vector and the study of species diversity related to disease transmission.

Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor Inhibition Is Protective in Hyperoxia-Induced Lung Injury.

Aims: Studies have linked severe hyperoxia, or prolonged exposure to very high oxygen levels, with worse clinical outcomes. This study investigated the role of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) in hyperoxia-induced lung injury at very high oxygen levels (>95%). Results: Effects of severe hyperoxia (100% oxygen) were studied in mice with genetically inhibited EGFR and wild-type littermates. Despite the established role of EGFR in lung repair, EGFR inhibition led to improved survival and reduced acute lung injury, which prompted an investigation into this protective mechanism. Endothelial EGFR genetic knockout did not confer protection. EGFR inhibition led to decreased levels of cleaved caspase-3 and poly (ADP-ribosyl) polymerase (PARP) and decreased terminal dUTP nick end labeling- (TUNEL-) positive staining in alveolar epithelial cells and reduced ERK activation, which suggested reduced apoptosis in vivo. EGFR inhibition decreased hyperoxia (95%)-induced apoptosis and ERK in murine alveolar epithelial cells in vitro, and CRISPR-mediated EGFR deletion reduced hyperoxia-induced apoptosis and ERK in human alveolar epithelial cells in vitro. Innovation. This work defines a protective role of EGFR inhibition to decrease apoptosis in lung injury induced by 100% oxygen. This further characterizes the complex role of EGFR in acute lung injury and outlines a novel hyperoxia-induced cell death pathway that warrants further study. Conclusion: In conditions of severe hyperoxia (>95% for >24 h), EGFR inhibition led to improved survival, decreased lung injury, and reduced cell death. These findings further elucidate the complex role of EGFR in acute lung injury.

Nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich-repeat-containing protein X1 deficiency induces nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide decline, mechanistic target of rapamycin activation, and cellular senescence and accelerates aging lung-like changes.

Mitochondrial dysfunction has long been implicated to have a causative role in organismal aging. A mitochondrial molecule, nucleotide-binding domain and leucine-rich-repeat-containing protein X1 (NLRX1), represents the only NLR family member that targets this cellular location, implying that NLRX1 probably establishes a fundamental link between mitochondrial functions and cellular physiology. However, the significance of NLRX1 function in cellular senescence, a key conceptual constituent in aging biology, is yet to be defined. Here, we demonstrate that molecular hallmarks involved in aging biology including NAD+ decline, and activation of mTOR, p53, and p16INK4A are significantly enhanced in NLRX1 deficiency in vitro. Mechanistic studies of replicative cellular senescence in the presence or absence of NLRX1 in vitro reveal that NLRX1-deficient fibroblasts fail to maintain optimal NAD+ /NADH ratio, which instigates the decline of SIRT1 and the activation of mTOR, p16INK4A , and p53, leading to the increase in senescence-associated beta-galactosidase (SA-ß-gal)-positive cells. Importantly, the enhanced cellular senescence response in NLRX1 deficiency is significantly attenuated by pharmacological inhibition of mTOR signaling in vitro. Finally, our in vivo murine studies reveal that NLRX1 decreases with age in murine lungs and NLRX1 deficiency in vivo accelerates pulmonary functional and structural changes that recapitulate the findings observed in human aging lungs. In conclusion, the current study provides evidence for NLRX1 as a crucial regulator of cellular senescence and in vivo lung aging.

Chitinase 3-like-1 is a Therapeutic Target That Mediates the Effects of Aging in COVID-19.

COVID-19 is caused by the SARS-CoV-2 (SC2) virus and is more prevalent and severe in the elderly and patients with comorbid diseases (CM). Because chitinase 3-like-1 (CHI3L1) is induced during aging and CM, the relationships between CHI3L1 and SC2 were investigated. Here we demonstrate that CHI3L1 is a potent stimulator of the SC2 receptor ACE2 and viral spike protein priming proteases (SPP), that ACE2 and SPP are induced during aging and that anti-CHI3L1, kasugamycin and inhibitors of phosphorylation, abrogate these ACE2- and SPP- inductive events. Human studies also demonstrated that the levels of circulating CHI3L1 are increased in the elderly and patients with CM where they correlate with COVID-19 severity. These studies demonstrate that CHI3L1 is a potent stimulator of ACE2 and SPP; that this induction is a major mechanism contributing to the effects of aging during SC2 infection and that CHI3L1 coopts the CHI3L1 axis to augment SC2 infection. CHI3L1 plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of and is an attractive therapeutic target in COVID-19.

Chitinase 3-like-1 is a therapeutic target that mediates the effects of aging in COVID-19.

COVID-19 is caused by SARS-CoV-2 (SC2) and is more prevalent and severe in elderly and patients with comorbid diseases (CM). Because chitinase 3-like-1 (CHI3L1) is induced during aging and CM, the relationships between CHI3L1 and SC2 were investigated. Here, we demonstrate that CHI3L1 is a potent stimulator of the SC2 receptor angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) and viral spike protein priming proteases (SPP), that ACE2 and SPP are induced during aging, and that anti-CHI3L1, kasugamycin, and inhibitors of phosphorylation abrogate these ACE2- and SPP-inductive events. Human studies also demonstrate that the levels of circulating CHI3L1 are increased in the elderly and patients with CM, where they correlate with COVID-19 severity. These studies demonstrate that CHI3L1 is a potent stimulator of ACE2 and SPP, that this induction is a major mechanism contributing to the effects of aging during SC2 infection, and that CHI3L1 co-opts the CHI3L1 axis to augment SC2 infection. CHI3L1 plays a critical role in the pathogenesis of and is an attractive therapeutic target in COVID-19.

A Novel Small-Molecule Inhibitor of Endosomal TLRs Reduces Inflammation and Alleviates Autoimmune Disease Symptoms in Murine Models.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play a fundamental role in the inflammatory response against invading pathogens. However, the dysregulation of TLR-signaling pathways is implicated in several autoimmune/inflammatory diseases. Here, we show that a novel small molecule TLR-inhibitor (TAC5) and its derivatives TAC5-a, TAC5-c, TAC5-d, and TAC5-e predominantly antagonized poly(I:C) (TLR3)-, imiquimod (TLR7)-, TL8-506 (TLR8)-, and CpG-oligodeoxynucleotide (TLR9)-induced signaling pathways. TAC5 and TAC5-a significantly hindered the activation of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB), reduced the phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinases, and inhibited the secretion of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6. Besides, TAC5-a prevented the progression of psoriasis and systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) in mice. Interestingly, TAC5 and TAC5-a did not affect Pam3CSK4 (TLR1/2)-, FSL-1 (TLR2/6)-, or lipopolysaccharide (TLR4)-induced TNF-α secretion, indicating their specificity towards endosomal TLRs (TLR3/7/8/9). Collectively, our data suggest that the TAC5 series of compounds are potential candidates for treating autoimmune diseases such as psoriasis or SLE.

Linear and Rationally Designed Stapled Peptides Abrogate TLR4 Pathway and Relieve Inflammatory Symptoms in Rheumatoid Arthritis Rat Model.

A mounting evidence exists for the despicable role of the aberrant immune response in the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA), where toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) can activate synovial fibroblasts that lead to the chronic inflammation and joint destruction, thus making TLR4 a potent drug target in RA. We report that novel TLR4-antagonizing peptide, PIP2, inhibits the induction of inflammatory biomarkers in vitro as well as in vivo. Systemically, PIP2 inhibits the lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-elicited TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-12p40 in a mouse model. The rationally designed cyclic derivative, cPIP2, is capable of inhibiting LPS-induced proinflammatory cytokines at significantly lower concentration as compared to PIP2 (PIP2 IC50 = 20 µM, cPIP2 IC50 = 5 µM). Finally, cPIP2 was able to relieve the inflammatory symptoms and synovial tissue destruction in the RA rat model. Cumulatively, these data suggest that PIP2 and cPIP2 hold strong promise for the development of peptide-based immunotherapeutics that could be of great value in curbing TLR-related immune complications including RA.

A cell-penetrating peptide blocks Toll-like receptor-mediated downstream signaling and ameliorates autoimmune and inflammatory diseases in mice.

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) recognize pathogen/damage-associated molecular patterns and initiate inflammatory signaling cascades. Occasionally, overexpression of TLRs leads to the onset of numerous inflammatory diseases, necessitating the development of selective inhibitors to allow a protective yet balanced immune response. Here, we demonstrate that a novel peptide (TIP1) derived from Toll/interleukin-1 receptor (TIR) domain-containing adapter protein inhibited multiple TLR signaling pathways (MyD88-dependent and MyD88-independent) in murine and human cell lines. TIP1 also inhibited NLRP3-mediated IL-1ß secretion, as we validated at both the protein and mRNA levels. Biophysical experiments confirmed that TIP1 specifically binds to the BB loop of the TLR4-TIR domain. Animal studies revealed that TIP1 inhibited the secretion of lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced proinflammatory cytokines in collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) and kaolin/carrageenan-induced arthritis (K/C) rodent models. TIP1 also rescued animals from sepsis and from LPS-induced kidney/liver damage. Importantly, TIP1 ameliorated the symptoms of rheumatoid arthritis in CIA and K/C rodent models, suggesting that TIP1 has therapeutic potential for the treatment of TLR-mediated autoimmune/inflammatory diseases.

Quasi-Stem Cells Derived from Human Somatic Cells by Chemically Modified Carbon Nanotubes.

Surface modification of micro- and nanotopography was employed to alter the surface properties of scaffolds for controlling cell attachment, proliferation, and differentiation. This study reports a method for generating multinucleated colonies as evidenced by spherical colony formation through nanotopography-induced expression of reprogramming factors in human dermal fibroblasts. Colony formation was achieved by subjecting the cells to specific environments such as culturing with single-walled carbon nanotubes and poly-l-lysine (PLL-SWCNTs). We obtained encouraging results showing that PLL-SWCNT treatment transformed fibroblast cells, and the transformed cells expressed the pluripotency-associated factors OCT4, NANOG, and SOX2 in addition to TRA-1-60 and SSEA-4, which are characteristic stem cell markers. Downregulation of lamin A/C, HDAC1, HDAC6, Bcl2, cytochrome c, p-FAK, p-ERK, and p-JNK and upregulation of H3K4me3 and p-p38 were confirmed in the generated colonies, indicating reprogramming of cells. This protocol increases the possibility of successfully reprogramming somatic cells into induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs), thereby overcoming the difficulties in iPSC generation such as genetic mutations, carcinogenesis, and undetermined risk factors.

TLR4/MD2 specific peptides stalled in vivo LPS-induced immune exacerbation.

Negative regulation of Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) is anticipated to control the pathogen-induced exaggerated immune response. However, effective TLR4 antagonists with scarce off-target effects are yet to be developed. To fill this void, we sought to design small peptide-inhibitors of the TLR4/MD2-LPS interaction. Here we report novel TLR4-antagonistic peptides (TAP), identified through phage display, endowed with the LPS-induced proinflammation inhibition, and confirmed in mice. TAPs-attributed TLR4-antagonism were initially evaluated through NF-κB inhibition in HEK-blue hTLR4 and RAW264.7 cells, and further reinforced by the downregulation of MAPKs (mitogen-activated protein kinases), NF-κB, interleukin 6, and suppression of the oxidative-stress products and iNOS in macrophages and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (hPBMCs). Among these, TAP2 specifically halted the TLR4, but not other TLRs signaling, which was further confirmed by the biophysical kinetic assay. Finally, TAP2 diminished LPS-elicited systemic cytokine response in vivo, suggesting that TAPs, specifically TAP2, have the potential to treat TLR4-mediated immune ailments.

Toll-like receptor 2 antagonists identified through virtual screening and experimental validation.

Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) antagonists are key therapeutic targets because they inhibit several inflammatory diseases caused by surplus TLR2 activation. In this study, we identified two novel nonpeptide TLR2 antagonists, C11 and C13, through pharmacophore-based virtual screening. At 10 µm, the level of interleukin (IL)-8 inhibition by C13 and C11 in human embryonic kidney TLR2 overexpressing cells was comparable to the commercially available TLR2 inhibitor CU-CPT22. In addition, C11 and C13 acted in mouse macrophage-like RAW 264.7 cells as TLR2-specific inhibitors and did not suppress the tumor necrosis factor-α induction by TLR3 and TLR4 activators. Moreover, the two identified compounds bound directly to the human recombinant TLR2 ectodomain, during surface plasmon resonance analysis, and did not affect cell viability in a 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5(3-carboxymethonyphenol)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium assay. In total, two virtually screened molecules, C11 and C13, were experimentally proven to be effective as TLR2 antagonists, and thus will provide new insights into the structure of TLR2 antagonists, and pave the way for the development of TLR2-targeted drug molecules.

Etoposide induced cytotoxicity mediated by ROS and ERK in human kidney proximal tubule cells.

Etoposide (ETO) is a commonly used chemotherapeutic drug that inhibits topoisomerase II activity, thereby leading to genotoxicity and cytotoxicity. However, ETO has limited application due to its side effects on normal organs, especially the kidney. Here, we report the mechanism of ETO-induced cytotoxicity progression in human kidney proximal tubule (HK-2) cells. Our results show that ETO perpetuates DNA damage, activates mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), and triggers morphological changes, such as cell and nuclear swelling. When NAC, a well-known reactive oxygen species (ROS) scavenger, is co-treated with ETO, it inhibits an ETO-induced increase in mitochondrial mass, mitochondrial DNA (ND1 and ND4) copy number, intracellular ATP level, and mitochondrial biogenesis activators (TFAM, PGC-1α and PGC-1ß). Moreover, co-treatment with ETO and NAC inhibits ETO-induced necrosis and cell swelling, but not apoptosis. Studies using MAPK inhibitors reveal that inhibition of extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) protects ETO-induced cytotoxicity by inhibiting DNA damage and caspase 3/7 activity. Eventually, ERK inhibitor treated cells are protected from ETO-induced nuclear envelope (NE) rupture and DNA leakage through inhibition of caspase activity. Taken together, these data suggest that ETO mediates cytotoxicity in HK-2 cells through ROS and ERK pathways, which highlight the preventive avenues in ETO-induced cytotoxicity in kidney.

Structural and functional analysis of cell adhesion and nuclear envelope nano-topography in cell death.

The cell death mechanisms of necrosis and apoptosis generate biochemical and morphological changes in different manners. However, the changes that occur in cell adhesion and nuclear envelope (NE) topography, during necrosis and apoptosis, are not yet fully understood. Here, we show the different alterations in cell adhesion function, as well as the topographical changes occurring to the NE, during the necrotic and apoptotic cell death process, using the xCELLigence system and atomic force microscopy (AFM). Studies using xCELLigence technology and AFM have shown that necrotic cell death induced the expansion of the cell adhesion area, but did not affect the speed of cell adhesion. Necrotic nuclei showed a round shape and presence of nuclear pore complexes (NPCs). Moreover, we found that the process of necrosis in combination with apoptosis (termed nepoptosis here) resulted in the reduction of the cell adhesion area and cell adhesion speed through the activation of caspases. Our findings showed, for the first time, a successful characterization of NE topography and cell adhesion during necrosis and apoptosis, which may be of importance for the understanding of cell death and might aid the design of future drug delivery methods for anti-cancer therapies.