Public health nutrition capacity: assuring the quality of workforce preparation for scaling up nutrition programmes.

OBJECTIVE: To describe why and how capacity-building systems for scaling up nutrition programmes should be constructed in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). DESIGN: Position paper with task force recommendations based on literature review and joint experience of global nutrition programmes, public health nutrition (PHN) workforce size, organization, and pre-service and in-service training. SETTING: The review is global but the recommendations are made for LMIC scaling up multisectoral nutrition programmes. SUBJECTS: The multitude of PHN workers, be they in the health, agriculture, education, social welfare, or water and sanitation sector, as well as the community workers who ensure outreach and coverage of nutrition-specific and -sensitive interventions. RESULTS: Overnutrition and undernutrition problems affect at least half of the global population, especially those in LMIC. Programme guidance exists for undernutrition and overnutrition, and priority for scaling up multisectoral programmes for tackling undernutrition in LMIC is growing. Guidance on how to organize and scale up such programmes is scarce however, and estimates of existing PHN workforce numbers - although poor - suggest they are also inadequate. Pre-service nutrition training for a PHN workforce is mostly clinical and/or food science oriented and in-service nutrition training is largely restricted to infant and young child nutrition. CONCLUSIONS: Unless increased priority and funding is given to building capacity for scaling up nutrition programmes in LMIC, maternal and child undernutrition rates are likely to remain high and nutrition-related non-communicable diseases to escalate. A hybrid distance learning model for PHN workforce managers' in-service training is urgently needed in LMIC.

Nutrition capacity development: a practice framework.

OBJECTIVE: To outline a framework and a process for assessing the needs for capacity development to achieve nutrition objectives, particularly those targeting maternal and child undernutrition. DESIGN: Commentary and conceptual framework. SETTING: Low- and middle-income countries. Result A global movement to invest in a package of essential nutrition interventions to reduce maternal and child undernutrition in low- and middle-income countries is building momentum. Capacity to act in nutrition is known to be minimal in most low- and middle-income countries, and there is a need for conceptual clarity about capacity development as a strategic construct and the processes required to realise the ability to achieve population nutrition and health objectives. The framework for nutrition capacity development proposed recognises capacity to be determined by a range of factors across at least four levels, including system, organisational, workforce and community levels. This framework provides a scaffolding to guide systematic assessment of capacity development needs which serves to inform strategic planning for capacity development. CONCLUSIONS: Capacity development is a critical prerequisite for achieving nutrition and health objectives, but is currently constrained by ambiguous and superficial conceptualisations of what capacity development involves and how it can be realised. The current paper provides a framework to assist this conceptualisation, encourage debate and ongoing refinement, and progress capacity development efforts.

Global policy and programme guidance on maternal nutrition: what exists, the mechanisms for providing it, and how to improve them?

Undernutrition in one form or another affects the majority of women of reproductive age in most developing countries. However, there are few or no effective programmes trying to solve maternal undernutrition problems. The purpose of the paper is to examine global policy and programme guidance mechanisms for nutrition, what their content is with regard to maternal nutrition in particular, as well as how these might be improved. Almost all countries have committed themselves politically to ensuring the right of pregnant and lactating women to good nutrition through the Convention on the Elimination of all Forms of Discrimination Against Women. Despite this, the World Health Organization (WHO) has not endorsed any policy commitments with regard to maternal nutrition. The only policy guidance coming from the various technical departments of WHO relates to the control of maternal anaemia. There is no policy or programme guidance concerning issues of maternal thinness, weight gain during pregnancy and/or low birthweight prevention. Few if any countries have maternal nutrition programmes beyond those for maternal anaemia, and most of those are not effective. The lack of importance given to maternal nutrition is related in part to a weakness of evidence, related to the difficulty of getting ethical clearance, as well as a generalised tendency to downplay the importance of those interventions found to be efficacious. No priority has been given to implementing existing policy and programme guidance for the control of maternal anaemia largely because of a lack of any dedicated funding, linked to a lack of Millennium Development Goals indicator status. This is partly due to the poor evidence base, as well as to the common belief that maternal anaemia programmes were not effective, even if efficacious. The process of providing evidence-based policy and programme guidance to member states is currently being revamped and strengthened by the Department of Nutrition for Health and Development of WHO through the Nutrition Guidance Expert Advisory Group processes. How and if programme guidance, as well as policy commitment for improved maternal nutrition, will be strengthened through the Nutrition Guidance Expert Advisory Group process is as yet unclear. The global movement to increase investment in programmes aimed at maternal and child undernutrition called Scaling Up Nutrition offers an opportunity to build developing country experience with efforts to improve nutrition during pregnancy and lactation. All member states are being encouraged by the World Health Assembly to scale-up efforts to improve maternal infant and young child nutrition. Hopefully Ministries of Health in countries most affected by maternal and child undernutrition will take leadership in the development of such plans, and ensure that the control of anaemia during pregnancy is given a great priority among these actions, as well as building programme experience with improved nutrition during pregnancy and lactation. For this to happen it is essential that donor support is assured, even if only to spearhead a few flagship countries.

Trends in low birthweight among the Bhutanese refugee population in Nepal.

BACKGROUND: Although much is known about risk factors for low birthweight, an important cause of neonatal death, little is known about how to reduce or prevent low birthweight. OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to verify a low rate in the incidence of low birthweight reported in the Bhutanese refugee camps in Nepal and, if true, to try to understand how this came about. METHODS: Medical records from 1994 to 2001 were recovered for half of the refugee population, and birthweight and other maternal factors were analyzed. The adequacy of the food ration provided to the general population was assessed by comparing it with the nutrient requirements of pregnant women. RESULTS: The rates of low birthweight were indeed low in the refugee camps, averaging 11% in the years reviewed. Between 1996 and 1998, the mean rate of low birthweight fell from 16% to 8% and mean birthweight increased from 2.84 kg (SE, 2.80-2.87) to 3.0 kg (SE, 2.97-3.03). The increase in birthweight occurred following improvements in the micronutrient-to-energy ratios of the general ration. CONCLUSIONS: Rates of low birthweight comparable to those in developed countries were achieved in an ethnic Nepali population within 5 years of settlement in refugee camps. These low rates were probably achieved because basic needs of mothers were met, including both the quantity and the micronutrient content of food, water and sanitation, antenatal care, and education. The improvement from 1996 to 1998 coincided with increased availability of micronutrients in the food ration. We hypothesize that increased periconceptional micronutrient intake may be responsible for the increase in birthweight.

An effectiveness trial of multiple micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy in Vietnam: impact on birthweight and on stunting in children at around 2 years of age.

BACKGROUND: Multiple micronutrient deficiencies during pregnancy in Vietnam may contribute to poor fetal growth and stunting, which are major determinants of the health and development offuture generations. OBJECTIVE: We assessed the effects of prenatal multiple micronutrient supplementation on maternal weight gain during pregnancy, infant birthweight, and height of the child at around 2 years of age. METHODS: We conducted a nonrandomized, non-blinded, side-by-side effectiveness trial in a normal program setting in three districts in the Red River Delta in the north of Vietnam. Women in one district received the standard iron-folic acid supplement during prenatal care; women in the second district received the multiple micronutrient supplement; in the third district, gender training was provided in addition to the multiple micronutrient supplement. Cluster surveys were carried out in the three districts at the end of the trial to verify low birthweight (LBW) and at around 2 years after the trial to measure children's height and weight, as well as to collect demographic data on the mothers. RESULTS: Mean birthweight was higher in the districts receiving multiple micronutrient supplements than in the district receiving iron-folic acid tablets. The mean birthweight was 166 g higher in the district receiving multiple micronutrients and 105 g higher in the district receiving multiple micronutrients with gender training than in the district receiving iron-folic acid (p < .05). The prevalence of LBW children (< 2500 g) was lower in the district receiving multiple micronutrients (4.0%) and the district receiving multiple micronutrients plus gender training (5.8%) than in the district receiving iron-folic acid (10.6%) (p < .05). Children at around 2 years of age were taller in the district receiving multiple micronutrients (82.66 cm) and the district receiving multiple micronutrients plus gender training (83.61 cm) than in the district receiving iron-folic acid (81.64 cm), and the stunting rates were about 10% lower than in the district receiving iron-folic acid. CONCLUSIONS: Multiple micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy could be an important intervention to help reduce stunting rates in Vietnam.

Multiple micronutrient supplementation during pregnancy in developing-country settings: policy and program implications of the results of a meta-analysis.

BACKGROUND: An independent Systematic Review Team performed a meta-analysis of 12 randomized, controlled trials comparing multiple micronutrients with daily iron-folic acid supplementation during pregnancy. OBJECTIVE: To provide an independent interpretation of the policy and program implications of the results of the meta-analysis. METHODS: A group of policy and program experts performed an independent review of the meta-analysis results, analyzing internal and external validity and drawing conclusions on the program implications. RESULTS: Although iron content was often lower in the multiple micronutrient supplement than in the iron-folic acid supplement, both supplements were equally effective in tackling anemia. Community-based supplementation ensured high adherence, but some mothers still remained anemic, indicating the need to concomitantly treat infections. The small, significant increase in mean birthweight among infants of mothers receiving multiple micronutrients compared with infants of mothers receiving iron-folic acid is of similar magnitude to that produced by food supplementation during pregnancy. Larger micronutrient doses seem to produce greater impact. Meaningful improvements have also been observed in height and cognitive development of the children by 2 years of age. There were no significant differences in the rates of stillbirth, early neonatal death, or neonatal death between the supplemented groups. The nonsignificant trend toward increased early neonatal mortality observed in the groups receiving multiple micronutrients may be related to differences across trials in the rate of adolescent pregnancies, continuing iron deficiency, and/or adequacy of postpartum health care and merits further investigation. CONCLUSIONS: Replacing iron-folic acid supplements with multiple micronutrient supplements in the package of health and nutrition interventions delivered to mothers during pregnancy will improve the impact of supplementation on birthweight and on child growth and development.

Nutrition education in the context of the United Nations Standing Committee on Nutrition activities and publications, 1985-2006.

The United Nations System Standing Committee on Nutrition (SCN) is a forum where United Nations (UN) agencies, bilateral partners, and nongovernmental agencies meet to harmonize and coordinate nutrition policy and programs. This report reviews the positions taken regarding nutrition education throughout SCN publications, annual sessions, and thematic working groups. The first Nutrition Policy Paper, published in 1985, was a State-of-the-Art Review that investigated 6 aspects of a nutrition education system. Later SCN publications and meetings have further addressed how to conduct effective nutrition education to maximize impact. For nutrition education to be worthwhile, it must reach significant audiences and lead to behavioral change, conditions which in turn require feasibility studies and investments in terms of personnel and resources. The SCN plays an important role to these ends through: 1) the advocacy opportunity offered by the SCN Annual Session; 2) the expertise of the working groups; and 3) the dissemination channels offered by the SCN publications and Web site.

Vitamin A policies need rethinking.

The prevalence of vitamin A (VA) deficiency, which affects about one-third of children in developing countries, is falling only slowly. This is despite extensive distribution and administration of periodic (4- to 6-monthly) high-dose VA capsules over the past 20 years, now covering a reported 80% of children in developing countries. This massive programme was motivated largely by an expectation of reducing child mortality, stemming from findings in the 1980s and early 90s. Efficacy trials since 1994 have in most cases not confirmed a mortality impact of VA capsules. Only one large scale programme evaluation has ever been published, which showed no impact on 1-6-year-old mortality (the DEVTA trial, ending in 2003, in Uttar Pradesh, India). Periodic high-dose VA capsules may have less relevance now with changing disease patterns (notably, reductions in measles and diarrhoea). High-dose VA 6-monthly does not reduce prevalence of the deficiency itself, estimated by low serum retinol. It is proposed that: (i) there is no longer any evidence that intermittent high-dose VA programmes are having any substantial mortality effect, perhaps due to changing disease patterns; (ii) frequent intakes of vitamin A in physiological doses -e.g. through food-based approaches, including fortification, and through regular low-dose supplementation-are highly effective in increasing serum retinol (SR) and reducing vitamin A deficiency; (iii) therefore a policy shift is needed, based on consideration of current evidence. A prudent phase-over is needed towards increasing frequent regular intakes of VA at physiological levels, daily or weekly, replacing the high-dose periodic capsule distribution programmes. Moving resources in this direction must happen sooner or later: it should be sooner.

Preventing low birthweight and reduction of child mortality.

Surprisingly little attention is paid to birthweight improvement as a means of reducing child mortality. Half of the 10 million pre-school-age children that die each year have malnutrition as an underlying or associated cause. Furthermore, the majority of these deaths are associated with the mild and moderate forms of malnutrition, reflecting how this effect is manifest across the whole population distribution. Similar relationships are seen between birthweight and neonatal mortality, with the least risk of neonatal death occurring in children born weighing more than 3.5 kg. Child malnutrition is increasingly recognized to be largely determined during the period of fetal and infant growth, when maternal nutrition has its strongest influence. Although the effects of maternal food supplements on mean birthweight are relatively small, because of their influence across the population distribution they have great biological significance. An increase of 100 g in mean birthweight is associated with a 30-50% reduction in neonatal mortality. The programmes that need to be put in place to improve maternal nutritional status are discussed, and the programme initiatives being promoted by UNICEF to prevent low birthweight, including multiple micronutrient supplementation trials are further described.

The first 500 days of life: policies to support maternal nutrition.

BACKGROUND: From conception to 6 months of age, an infant is entirely dependent for its nutrition on the mother: via the placenta and then ideally via exclusive breastfeeding. This period of 15 months--about 500 days--is the most important and vulnerable in a child's life: it must be protected through policies supporting maternal nutrition and health. Those addressing nutritional status are discussed here. OBJECTIVE AND DESIGN: This paper aims to summarize research on policies and programs to protect women's nutrition in order to improve birth outcomes in low- and middle-income countries, based on studies of efficacy from the literature, and on effectiveness, globally and in selected countries involving in-depth data collection in communities in Ethiopia, India and Northern Nigeria. Results of this research have been published in the academic literature (more than 30 papers). The conclusions now need to be advocated to policy-makers. RESULTS: The priority problems addressed are: intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), women's anemia, thinness, and stunting. The priority interventions that need to be widely expanded for women before and during pregnancy, are: supplementation with iron-folic acid or multiple micronutrients; expanding coverage of iodine fortification of salt particularly to remote areas and the poorest populations; targeted provision of balanced protein energy supplements when significant resources are available; reducing teenage pregnancies; increasing interpregnancy intervals through family planning programs; and building on conditional cash transfer programs, both to provide resources and as a platform for public education. All these have known efficacy but are of inadequate coverage and resourcing. The next steps are to overcome barriers to wide implementation, without which targets for maternal and child health and nutrition (e.g. by WHO) are unlikely to be met, especially in the poorest countries. CONCLUSIONS: This agenda requires policy decisions both at Ministry and donor levels, and throughout the administrative system. Evidence-based interventions are established as a basis for these decisions, there are clear advocacy messages, and there are no scientific reasons for delay.

Worldwide timing of growth faltering: revisiting implications for interventions.

OBJECTIVE: Our goal was to describe worldwide growth-faltering patterns by using the new World Health Organization (WHO) standards. METHODS: We analyzed information available from the WHO Global Database on Child Growth and Malnutrition, comprising data from national anthropometric surveys from 54 countries. Anthropometric data comprise weight-for-age, length/height-for-age, and weight-for-length/height z scores. The WHO regions were used to aggregate countries: Europe and Central Asia; Latin America and the Caribbean; North Africa and Middle East; South Asia; and sub-Saharan Africa. RESULTS: Sample sizes ranged from 1000 to 47 000 children. Weight for length/height starts slightly above the standard in children aged 1 to 2 months and falters slightly until 9 months of age, picking up after that age and remaining close to the standard thereafter. Weight for age starts close to the standard and falters moderately until reaching approximately -1 z at 24 months and remaining reasonably stable after that. Length/height for age also starts close to the standard and falters dramatically until 24 months, showing noticeable bumps just after 24, 36, and 48 months but otherwise increasing slightly after 24 months. CONCLUSIONS: Comparison of child growth patterns in 54 countries with WHO standards shows that growth faltering in early childhood is even more pronounced than suggested by previous analyses based on the National Center for Health Statistics reference. These findings confirm the need to scale up interventions during the window of opportunity defined by pregnancy and the first 2 years of life, including prevention of low birth weight and appropriate infant feeding practices.