Staphylococcus spp. as part of the microbiota and as opportunistic pathogen in free-ranging black-tuffed marmosets (Callithrix penicillata) from urban areas: Epidemiology, antimicrobial resistance, and pathology.

BACKGROUND: Marmosets (Callithrix sp.), including black-tuffed marmosets (C. penicillata), are neotropical primates that can be highly adapted to urban environments, especially parks and forested areas near cities. Staphylococcus spp. are part of the microbiota of many different hosts and lead to opportunistic severe infection. Isolates from wild animals can be resistant to antimicrobial drugs. However, there are a few studies that evaluated Staphylococcus spp. in neotropical primates. The goal of this study was to evaluate Staphylococcus spp. isolated from free-ranging black-tuffed marmosets. METHODS: Marmosets were captured in six urban parks. After sedation, skin and rectal swabs and feces were sampled. Staphylococcus spp. isolates were identified by MALDI-ToF and their antimicrobial susceptibility was determined. RESULTS: Over 30% of captured individuals were positive for Staphylococcus spp., and S. aureus was the most isolated species followed by Mammaliicoccus (Staphylococcus) sciuri. With the exception of the marmoset subjected to necropsy, none of the other had lesions, which supports that notion that Staphylococcus spp. are members of the microbiota, but also opportunistic pathogens. Most isolates were susceptible to all antimicrobials tested; however, one isolate of S. epidermidis was resistant to multiple antimicrobials (penicillin, cefoxitin, ciprofloxacin, clindamycin, and erythromycin). We considered S. aureus as the main staphylococci to colonize black-tuffed marmosets. CONCLUSIONS: Black-tuffed marmosets can be colonized by several Staphylococcus species, most frequently by S. aureus, and the majority of isolates were sensible to the antimicrobials tested. One S. epidermidis isolate was considered multidrug resistant.

Production and purification of Clostridium perfringens type C beta-toxin and IgG and IgY antitoxins.

OBJECTIVES: This study aimed to produce and purify Clostridium perfringens type C beta-toxin, sheep anti-beta toxin immunoglobulin G (IgG) and chicken immunoglobulin Y (IgY). METHODS: Two methods were used for beta-toxin purification: single-step metal affinity chromatography (MAC) using zinc as a chelator and ion exchange chromatography (IEX). The purified and inactivated beta-toxoids were then administered to sheep and chickens in order to produce IgG and IgY. RESULTS: All assays using the IEX failed. In contrast, MAC purified more than 21 mg of toxin per run in a single-step protocol. The purified and inactivated beta-toxoids were then administered to sheep and chickens, and IgG and IgY were purified with a high yield, medium antibody titer of 50 IU/mL, and high avidity (73.2 %). CONCLUSIONS: C. perfringens type C beta-toxin and sheep or chicken anti-beta toxin IgG and IgY antibodies were successfully produced and purified using a simple protocol. This protocol can be used for the production of components used in the diagnosis and research of necrotic enteritis caused by C. perfringens type C, as well as for the evaluation of existing vaccines and the development of new preventive methods against this disease.

Fecal shedding of Clostridioides difficile in calves in Sao Paulo state, Brazil.

OBJECTIVE: This study aimed to evaluate the fecal shedding of C. difficile in calves on farms in Sao Paulo State, Brazil. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Fecal samples (n = 300) were collected from diarrheic (n = 78) and nondiarrheic (n = 222) calves less than 60 days of age from 20 farms. Fecal samples were inoculated into enrichment broth supplemented with taurocholate and cultured under anaerobic conditions. Colonies suspected to be C. difficile were harvested for DNA extraction and then multiplex PCR for the detection of genes encoding toxins A and B and binary toxins. All toxigenic isolates were ribotyped and tested for antimicrobial susceptibility, and five selected strains were subjected to whole-genome sequencing to determine their sequence type. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION: C. difficile was isolated from 29.3 % (88/300) of the samples. All toxigenic isolates (17/88, 19.3 %) were classified as ribotypes RT046 (13/17-79.47 %, A+B+ CDT-) and RT126 (4/17 = 20.53 %, A+B+ CDT+). The sequenced strains from RT046 were classified as ST35 (Clade 1), while those from RT126 were classified as ST11 (Clade 5). No associations between the epidemiological factors in any of the groups and C. difficile isolation were observed. Most of the toxigenic isolates (16/17 = 94.41 %) were classified as multidrug-resistant. Calves can be an important source of toxigenic C. difficile strains, including multidrug-resistant isolates from ribotypes commonly observed in humans.

Chylothorax associated with pulmonary compressive atelectasis in an emperor tamarin (Saguinus imperator).

Chylothorax is the accumulation of lymph in the thoracic cavity, and it has never been reported in neotropical primates. An emperor tamarin died and at necropsy chylothorax associated with pulmonary compressive atelectasis was diagnosed. Idiopathic chylothorax can be a cause of respiratory insufficiency and death in tamarins.

Polyarteritis nodosa in a captive common wooly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha) associated with intestinal necrosis, peritonitis, and sepsis.

Polyarteritis nodosa is an idiopathic necrotizing vasculitis that affects small to medium-sized arteries. We describe a case of polyarteritis nodosa in a captive common wooly monkey (Lagothrix lagotricha) associated with transmural intestinal necrosis and secondary peritonitis. This condition must be considered for differential diagnosis of segmental arteritis in neotropical primates.

Evaluation of disk diffusion method for testing the rifampicin, erythromycin, and tetracycline susceptibility of Clostridioides (prev. Clostridium) difficile.

INTRODUCTION: Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is one of the greatest threats to animal and public health. Clostridioides (prev. Clostridium) difficile is a major burden to healthcare and a relevant AMR gene reservoir. Despite the known importance of AMR in C. difficile epidemiology and treatment, antimicrobial susceptibility testing for this pathogen is still based on the determination of the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) by the agar dilution method, which is technically demanding and labor-intensive. In this study, the disk diffusion method was used to evaluate the susceptibility of C. difficile to erythromycin, rifampicin, and tetracycline. MATERIAL AND METHODS: A total of 155 isolates isolated between 2011 and 2022 from humans and animals in Brazil were simultaneously tested using the disk diffusion method and the epsilometer test (Etest) for these three antimicrobials on Brucella blood agar supplemented with vitamin K and hemin. RESULTS: The results suggest that disk diffusion can be an interesting routine tool to identify erythromycin- and rifampicin-resistant C. difficile isolates (≥20 mm cut-off) and wild type (WT) strains (≥28 mm). However, the disk diffusion protocol tested in this study does not seem suitable for tetracycline because of the common misclassification of resistant strains.

Mammaliicoccus (Staphylococcus) sciuri-induced suppurative meningoencephalitis and bacteremia in an infant western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla).

Mammaliicoccus (Staphylococcus) sciuri has been rarely associated with infections and sepsis in humans. A 3-month-old male western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), born under human care, died after a traumatic event. Histologic, microbiologic, and molecular findings in postmortem demonstrated a suppurative meningoencephalitis and bacteremia associated with M. sciuri infection.

Lethal acute diarrhea associated with Clostridioides difficile toxin A and B in a buffy-tufted-ear marmoset (Callithrix aurita).

This is a case of lethal acute diarrhea associated with a mild neutrophilic enteritis in a buffy-tufted-ear marmoset (Callithrix aurita) with detection of A/B toxins and isolation of a toxigenic clade 3 Clostridioides difficile strain (A+ B+ CDT+ , ST5), which should be considered as a potential cause of enteritis in this species.

Laboratory diagnosis of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection in domestic animals: A short review.

Despite the known importance of Clostridioides (Clostridium) difficile infection (CDI) in animals, there are no published guidelines for the diagnosis of CDI. The performance of the available commercial methods, all standardized for human stool samples, can vary according to the animal species. Thus, the aim of the present study was to review the literature on the detection of C. difficile in pigs, horses, and dogs. The detection of toxins A and B using enzyme immunoassays seems to have low performance in piglet and dog samples, while it shows high sensitivity for the diagnosis of CDI in foals. On the other hand, tests for the detection of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) have a high sensitivity towards detection of C. difficile in animal samples, suggesting that it can be an adequate screening method. A few studies have evaluated real-time PCR or nucleic acid amplification tests in animal samples and, so far, these methods have also shown a low performance for the detection of C. difficile in animals. Although the intestinal lesions caused by CDI can vary among animal species, histopathology can be a useful auxiliary tool for postmortem diagnosis in animals.

Virulence Genes Profile and Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Community-Acquired Bacterial Urinary Tract Infections in a Brazilian Hospital.

Urinary tract infections (UTI) are one of the most common diseases worldwide and Escherichia coli is the most common causative bacteria. Empirical treatment is challenging due to antimicrobial or multidrug-resistance. The aims of this study were to determine the uropathogens and their antimicrobial susceptibility profile, as well as to identify the phylogroups and virulence genes of E. coli strains, associated with community-acquired UTI in outpatients admitted at a Brazilian Hospital in southeast Brazil. In total, 47 bacterial strains were isolated from 47 patients, 44 women and 2 men (no gender record from one patient). The age of the patients whose urine culture were positive varied from 0 (less than one month) to 104 years. Most of the isolates were E. coli (41/47), followed by Klebsiella pneumoniae (2/47), Klebsiella variicola/Klebsiella aerogenes (1/47), Pseudomonas aeruginosa (1/47), Proteus mirabilis (1/47), and Citrobacter koseri (1/47). Most E. coli strains were classified as phylogroup B2 (15/41 = 36.59%) and B1 (12/41 = 29.27%) and the most common virulence genes among E. coli strains were fimH (31/41 = 75.61%), iutA (21/41 = 51.22%), and tratT (16/41 = 39.02%). Among the E. coli strains, 59% were multidrug-resistance and strains that were ampicillin, sulfamethoxazole/trimethoprim, or tetracycline-resistant exhibited more chance to be multidrug-resistance, with an odds ratio of 100.00 [95% confidence interval (CI) 9.44-1059.26], 22.50 (95% CI 3.95-128.30), and 12.83 (95% CI 2.68-61.45), respectively. Our results showed that E. coli was the main etiological agent identified and demonstrated high frequency of multidrug-resistance and virulence factors in bacterial strains isolated from UTIs.

Cattle and goats' humoral response to vaccination with Clostridium perfringens type D purified epsilon toxoids.

Herd vaccination is an important preventive measure against enterotoxemia in ruminants. Vaccination in goats should be performed every four months, and recent studies have shown that immunity in cattle lasts for less than one year. One of the mechanisms for increasing the duration of the immune response is to use purified toxoids as immunogens. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the humoral response in cattle and goats after vaccination with purified and semi-purified Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxoid. The following three different vaccines were used: vaccine 1 (V1), a semi-purified toxoid adsorbed to aluminum hydroxide; vaccine 2 (V2), a purified toxoid adsorbed to aluminum hydroxide; and vaccine (V3), a purified toxoid adsorbed on chitosan microparticles. Groups of cattle (n = 6-7) and goats (n = 6-7) were vaccinated on days 0 and 30, and serum samples for antitoxin titration were collected every 30 days for one-year post-vaccination. Goats were revaccinated on day 360, and their serum was evaluated on days 367 and 374. The antibody peaks ranged between 6.90 and 11.47 IU/mL in cattle and from 1.11 to 4.40 IU/mL in goats. In cattle administered with the V1 and V2 vaccines, we observed that the antibody titers were maintained above 0.2 IU/mL until the end of the experiment. In goats, V2 elicited long-lasting antibodies, and all animals maintained the protective titers for 210 days after the first dose. In conclusion, the purified toxoid vaccine with aluminum hydroxide adjuvant was able to induce strong and long-lasting humoral responses in both species and could be an alternative for improving the immunization schedule against enterotoxemia in goats and cattle.

Production and purification of Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin and IgY antitoxin.

The aim of this study was to purify Clostridium perfringens type D epsilon toxin and produce and purify anti-epsilon chicken immunoglobulin Y (IgY). A single-step ion exchange chromatography resulted in a high-yield and high-purity toxin, while ion exchange chromatography followed by gel filtration resulted in the highest purity of the toxin, but at a lower yield. Purified and inactivated epsilon toxin were then administered in chickens via four inoculations and IgY was obtained at a high purity and yield, with an antibody titer of 50 IU/mL and high levels of avidity (73.2%). In summary, C. perfringens type D epsilon toxin and chicken anti-epsilon IgY were successfully produced and purified, and may be used for the diagnosis of enterotoxemia caused by the epsilon toxin, as well as in potency tests of existing and future vaccines against enterotoxemia.

Isolation of Clostridium perfringens and Clostridioides difficile in diarrheic and nondiarrheic cats.

The occurrence and characteristics of Clostridioides (previously Clostridium) difficile and Clostridium perfringens in the feces of diarrheic and non-diarrheic cats was investigated. Apparently healthy animals were more likely to be positive for C. perfringens type A (p = 0.009). Two isolates (0.7%), one each from a diarrheic and an apparently healthy cat, were positive for the enterotoxin-encoding gene but negative for the NetF-encoding gene. Six toxigenic C. difficile isolates were isolated, all RT106 and ST42, which is commonly reported in humans with C. difficile infection.

Humoral responses in cattle to commercial vaccines containing Clostridium perfringens epsilon toxoid and C. botulinum types C and D toxoids last less than a-year.

The aim of this study was to evaluate the titers of neutralizing antibodies in cattle inoculated with multivalent commercial clostridial vaccines containing C. botulinum type C (BoNTC), C. botulinum type D (BoNTD), and C. perfringens epsilon (ETX) toxoids for a period of one year. Cattle (Bos taurus), aged 4-6 months and not previously immunized, were vaccinated under four different protocols at days 0 and 30 and followed over one year. Individual serum titration was performed by a serum neutralization test in mice or in MDCK cells. The number of animals with detectable neutralizing antibodies ranged from 40.6% to 78.1%, but only 12.5% of animals showed neutralizing antibodies against all tested antigens. Neutralizing antibodies were found only until 60 days for ETX, 120 days for BoNTC, and 180 days for BoNTD. The absence of detectable neutralizing antibodies against the three antigens before 360 days, suggests that cattle remained unprotected for a long period before the recommended booster vaccination.

The non-toxigenic strain of Clostridioides difficile Z31 can prevent infection by C. difficile in experimental model piglets.

One of the main challenges associated with Clostridioides difficile infection (CDI) in humans and domestic animals is the lack of an effective preventive strategy. One strategy with promising results is the oral administration of non-toxigenic strains of C. difficile (NTCD). Recently, Z31, a NTCD strain isolated from a healthy dog, showed promising results to prevent CDI in hamsters. Thus, the present study aimed to evaluate the capacity of Z31 to prevent CDI in piglets using an experimental model. Twenty neonatal piglets were randomly distributed in three groups: G1 - 106 spores of Z31 followed by 107 spores of a toxigenic C. difficile strain (n = 7), G2 (positive control) - 107 spores of a toxigenic C. difficile strain (n = 7), and G3 (negative control) - no biological inoculum (n = 6). All animals were kept in individual insulators and observed for 60 h. Data regarding clinical signs, macro and microscopic lesions, toxigenic culture of C. difficile, and detection of A/B toxins in the feces were evaluated. All evaluated parameters were significantly lower in animals that received Z31 compared to the positive control. Thus, oral administration of Z31 was able to prevent CDI in piglets in an experimental model.

Molecular epidemiology of Clostridioides (previously Clostridium) difficile isolates from a university hospital in Minas Gerais, Brazil.

The molecular epidemiology of 38 non-duplicate toxigenic Clostridioides (previously Clostridium) difficile isolates from inpatients from a hospital in Brazil during a 6-year period (2012-2017) were investigated by multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and ribotyping. These isolates were classified into 20 sequence types (ST), six (30%) of which were novel, revealing a high diversity in a single hospital. Classic hypervirulent strains ST1/RT027 and ST11/RT078 were not identified, while ST42 (almost all RT106) was the most common type, being detected in 11 (28.9%) strains. Noteworthy, six (15.8%) isolates were classified into five STs from clade 2, four of which were new ST and RT. Our study suggests that possible hypervirulent strains other than ST1/RT027 might be inadvertently circulating in Brazilian hospitals and highlights the importance of permanent surveillance on circulating strains in a national scale.

Impact of simultaneous glutamate dehydrogenase and toxin A/B rapid immunoassay on Clostridium difficile diagnosis and treatment in hospitalized patients with antibiotic-associated diarrhea in a university hospital of Brazil.

BACKGROUND AND AIM: Clostridium difficile is a major cause of health care-associated infection, but disagreement between diagnostic tests is an ongoing barrier to clinical decision-making. Conventional enzyme immunoassay (EIA) for toxin detection is currently the most frequently used technique for C. difficile infection (CDI) diagnosis, but its low sensitivity makes the development of an alternative strategy necessary for improving the diagnosis in developing countries. METHODS: Between years 2011 and 2015, 154 stool samples from patients with antibiotic-associated diarrhea were examined by toxigenic culture and EIA for the diagnosis of CDI. In the year 2015, when glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH) test was first available in Brazil, 53 of those fecal specimens were also tested by the C. diff Quik Chek Complete rapid immunoassay. At this time, we prospectively assessed the impact of this test on CDI treatment rates before and after it was introduced in clinical practice. RESULTS: The GDH component of C. diff Quik Chek Complete test had a sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 95.1% compared with toxigenic culture, with 89.8% concordance. The Tox A/B II EIA and the toxin portion of C. diff Quik Chek Complete yielded sensitivities between values of 50-58.3%, with 100% specificities. The introduction of GDH test increased the number of treated patients with CDI from 57.7% to 100%. CONCLUSIONS: Glutamate dehydrogenase test is a reliable method for the diagnosis of CDI and greatly increases the number of properly treated patients with CDI. Therefore, this exam should be considered the mainstay for the laboratory diagnosis of CDI in developing countries.

Type C botulism in domestic chickens, dogs and black-pencilled marmoset (Callithrix penicillata) in Minas Gerais, Brazil.

Botulism is a well-known intoxication that affects humans and animals. The disease is endemic in cattle in Brazil and recently emerged as an important disease in commercial laying hens and broiler chickens in Europe. Dogs and other animal species can also be affected. Although antitoxins are commonly administered to humans diagnosed with botulism, in animals this is rarely the case and the treatment of botulism is still based only on support therapy. In the present work, we report an outbreak of type C botulism in Brazil that simultaneously affected domestic chickens, dogs and a black-pencilled marmoset (Callithrix penicillata). The successful use of Clostridium botulinum types C and D antitoxin for the treatment of an affected dog is also described.

The incidence of Clostridioides difficile and Clostridium perfringens netF-positive strains in diarrheic dogs.

The aim of this study was to examine the incidence of Clostridioides (previously Clostridium) difficile and Clostridium perfringens in the feces of diarrheic and non-diarrheic dogs. Also, the presence of other common canine enteropathogens was examined. Toxigenic C. difficile and C. perfringens positive for the NetF-encoding gene (netF) were detected in 11 (11.9%) and seven (7.6%) diarrheic dogs, respectively. Three dogs were diagnosed simultaneously with toxigenic C. difficile and netF-positive C. perfringens. Among other enteropathogens, Giardia sp. was the most common agent detected in dogs positive for toxigenic C. difficile or netF-positive C. perfringens. The results suggest that C. difficile and C. perfringens occur more frequently as a primary cause of diarrhea.

Rodents are carriers of Clostridioides difficile strains similar to those isolated from piglets.

Features of Clostridioides difficile transmission in swine and the role of rodents as C. difficile reservoir are not clear. To investigate if rodents can carry strains of C. difficile that are genetically similar to those isolated from swine, 97 fecal samples from neonatal piglets and 41 intestinal contents from rodents were collected in two farms. All samples were subjected to C. difficile culture and the presence of A/B toxins in piglet feces were accessed by commercial enzyme imunoassay (EIA). C. difficile isolates were typed by double- (DLST) and multi-locus sequence typing (MLST). C. difficile was isolated from 15.5% of piglets and 31.7% of rodents. Most isolates were identified as DLST type 4-4 and 17-5 (both are ST11), which were found in both rodents and piglets. Results of this study suggested that rodents may have a role on the transmission and spread of C. difficile strains to swine.