Synthesis and characterization of TiO2 nanoparticles combined with geraniol and their synergistic antibacterial activity.

BACKGROUND: The emergence of antibiotic resistance in pathogenic bacteria has become a global threat, encouraging the adoption of efficient and effective alternatives to conventional antibiotics and promoting their use as replacements. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles (TiO2 NPs) have been reported to exhibit antibacterial properties. In this study, we synthesized and characterized TiO2 NPs in anatase and rutile forms with surface modification by geraniol (GER). RESULTS: The crystallinity and morphology of modified TiO2 NPs were analyzed by UV/Vis spectrophotometry, X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with elemental mapping (EDS). The antimicrobial activity of TiO2 NPs with geraniol was assessed against Staphylococcus aureus, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA), and Escherichia coli. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of modified NPs ranged from 0.25 to 1.0 mg/ml against all bacterial strains, and the live dead assay and fractional inhibitory concentration (FIC) supported the antibacterial properties of TiO2 NPs with GER. Moreover, TiO2 NPs with GER also showed a significant decrease in the biofilm thickness of MRSA. CONCLUSIONS: Our results suggest that TiO2 NPs with GER offer a promising alternative to antibiotics, particularly for controlling antibiotic-resistant strains. The surface modification of TiO2 NPs by geraniol resulted in enhanced antibacterial properties against multiple bacterial strains, including antibiotic-resistant MRSA. The potential applications of modified TiO2 NPs in the biomedical and environmental fields warrant further investigation.

Mutual influence of selenium nanoparticles and FGF2-STAB® on biocompatible properties of collagen/chitosan 3D scaffolds: in vitro and ex ovo evaluation.

In a biological system, nanoparticles (NPs) may interact with biomolecules. Specifically, the adsorption of proteins on the nanoparticle surface may influence both the nanoparticles' and proteins' overall bio-reactivity. Nevertheless, our knowledge of the biocompatibility and risk of exposure to nanomaterials is limited. Here, in vitro and ex ovo biocompatibility of naturally based crosslinked freeze-dried 3D porous collagen/chitosan scaffolds, modified with thermostable fibroblast growth factor 2 (FGF2-STAB®), to enhance healing and selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) to provide antibacterial activity, were evaluated. Biocompatibility and cytotoxicity were tested in vitro using normal human dermal fibroblasts (NHDF) with scaffolds and SeNPs and FGF2-STAB® solutions. Metabolic activity assays indicated an antagonistic effect of SeNPs and FGF2-STAB® at high concentrations of SeNPs. The half-maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of SeNPs for NHDF was 18.9 µg/ml and IC80 was 5.6 µg/ml. The angiogenic properties of the scaffolds were monitored ex ovo using a chick chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) assay and the cytotoxicity of SeNPs over IC80 value was confirmed. Furthermore, the positive effect of FGF2-STAB® at very low concentrations (0.01 µg/ml) on NHDF metabolic activity was observed. Based on detailed in vitro testing, the optimal concentrations of additives in the scaffolds were determined, specifically 1 µg/ml of FGF2-STAB® and 1 µg/ml of SeNPs. The scaffolds were further subjected to antimicrobial tests, where an increase in selenium concentration in the collagen/chitosan scaffolds increased the antibacterial activity. This work highlights the antimicrobial ability and biocompatibility of newly developed crosslinked collagen/chitosan scaffolds involving FGF2-STAB® and SeNPs. Moreover, we suggest that these sponges could be used as scaffolds for growing cells in systems with low mechanical loading in tissue engineering, especially in dermis replacement, where neovascularization is a crucial parameter for successful skin regeneration. Due to their antimicrobial properties, these scaffolds are also highly promising for tissue replacement requiring the prevention of infection.

Upconversion nanoparticle bioconjugates characterized by capillary electrophoresis.

Upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) are an emerging class of optical materials with high potential in bioimaging due to practically no background signal and high penetration depth. Their excellent optical properties and easy surface functionalization make them perfect for conjugation with targeting ligands. In this work, capillary electrophoretic (CE) method with laser-induced fluorescence detection was used to investigate the behavior of carboxyl-silica-coated UCNPs. Folic acid, targeting folate receptor overexpressed by wide variety of cancer cells, was used for illustrative purposes and assessed by CE under optimized conditions. Peptide-mediated bioconjugation of antibodies to UCNPs was also investigated. Despite the numerous advantages of CE, this is the first time that CE was employed for characterization of UCNPs and their bioconjugates. The separation conditions were optimized including the background electrolyte concentration and pH. The optimized electrolyte was 20 mM borate buffer with pH 8.

Effect of arsenic (III and V) on oxidative stress parameters in resistant and susceptible Staphylococcus aureus.

The presented study deals with the observation of properties of methicillin-susceptible Staphylococcus aureus (MSSA) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in the toxic arsenic environment and influence of arsenic on antioxidant capacity. Two forms of arsenic (As(III), As(V)) with different concentrations were used for induction of the oxidative stress in tested strains. Microbiological methods showed that the growth inhibition of MSSA was higher than that of MRSA in presence of both arsenic ions. As(III) showed 24% and 33% higher anti-microbial effects than As(V) against MSSA and MRSA respectively. A similar result was found also in the experiment of reduction of biofilm-formation. By using spectrophotometry, it was revealed that As(III) induced higher antioxidant production in both bacterial cultures. Methicillin-susceptible S. aureus produced an app. 50 mg equivalent of gallic acid (GAE/1 mg of protein) and MRSA produced an app. 15 mg of GAE/1 mg of protein. The productions of metallothionein in MSSA and MRSA were decreased up to 62.41% and 55.84% respectively in presence of As ions. Reduction of As(III) and As(V) concentrations leads to a decrease in antioxidant production and increased the formation of metallothionein. All of these changes in the results were found to be significant statistically. Taken together, these experiments proved that in comparison with MSSA, MRSA is less susceptible not only to the antimicrobial effects of antibiotics but also against effects caused by metalloids, as arsenic. Thus, it can be stated that MRSA abounds with complex defensive mechanisms, which may in the future constitute significant problem in the efficiency of antibiotics alternatives as metal ions or nanoparticles.

DNA interaction with platinum-based cytostatics revealed by DNA sequencing.

The main mechanism of action of platinum-based cytostatic drugs - cisplatin, oxaliplatin and carboplatin - is the formation of DNA cross-links, which restricts the transcription due to the disability of DNA to enter the active site of the polymerase. The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was employed as a simplified model of the amplification process in the cell nucleus. PCR with fluorescently labelled dideoxynucleotides commonly employed for DNA sequencing was used to monitor the effect of platinum-based cytostatics on DNA in terms of decrease in labeling efficiency dependent on a presence of the DNA-drug cross-link. It was found that significantly different amounts of the drugs - cisplatin (0.21 µg/mL), oxaliplatin (5.23 µg/mL), and carboplatin (71.11 µg/mL) - were required to cause the same quenching effect (50%) on the fluorescent labelling of 50 µg/mL of DNA. Moreover, it was found that even though the amounts of the drugs was applied to the reaction mixture differing by several orders of magnitude, the amount of incorporated platinum, quantified by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry, was in all cases at the level of tenths of µg per 5 µg of DNA.

Doxorubicin interactions with bovine serum albumin revealed by microdialysis with on-line laser-induced fluorescence detection at subpicogram level.

Doxorubicin (DOX) is an effective antitumor drug employed for treatment of a wide range of cancers types such as neuroblastoma, osteosarcoma, breast and esophageal carcinomas. On the other hand, the cumulative dose is restricted (300-550 mg/m(2)) and its amount administered to a patient has to be closely controlled due to its cardiotoxicity. To understand the mechanisms of the DOX side effects as well as to reveal the ways how to reduce its adverse impact on cardiomyocytes, the interactions with particular components of the blood and tissues have to be studied in greater detail. In this work, microdialysis technique was optimized to extract DOX from samples and subsequently monitor its interaction with BSA. Finally, the microdialysis probe was connected on-line to the LIF detector to ensure the real-time detection. The best flow rate was 1 µL/min and after 120 min of microdialysis 28% of the DOX was dialyzed out from the sample. The results from investigation of the DOX-BSA interaction indicate that the interaction occurs in less than 30 min, causing marked decrease in the amount of DOX extracted by microdialysis.

Study of linkage between glutathione pathway and the antibiotic resistance of Escherichia coli from patients' swabs.

In this work, we focused on the differences between bacterial cultures of E. coli obtained from swabs of infectious wounds of patients compared to laboratory E. coli. In addition, blocking of the protein responsible for the synthesis of glutathione (γ-glutamylcysteine synthase-GCL) using 10 mM buthionine sulfoximine was investigated. Each E. coli showed significant differences in resistance to antibiotics. According to the determined resistance, E. coli were divided into experimental groups based on a statistical evaluation of their properties as more resistant and more sensitive. These groups were also used for finding the differences in a dependence of the glutathione pathway on resistance to antibiotics. More sensitive E. coli showed the same kinetics of glutathione synthesis while blocking GCL (Km 0.1 µM), as compared to non-blocking. In addition, the most frequent mutations in genes of glutathione synthetase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase were observed in this group compared to laboratory E.coli. The group of "more resistant" E. coli exhibited differences in Km between 0.3 and 0.8 µM. The number of mutations compared to the laboratory E. coli was substantially lower compared to the other group.

Utilization of paramagnetic microparticles for automated isolation of free circulating mRNA as a new tool in prostate cancer diagnostics.

Determination of serum mRNA gained a lot of attention in recent years, particularly from the perspective of disease markers. Streptavidin-modified paramagnetic particles (SMPs) seem an interesting technique, mainly due to possible automated isolation and high efficiency. The aim of this study was to optimize serum isolation protocol to reduce the consumption of chemicals and sample volume. The following factors were optimized: amounts of (i) paramagnetic particles, (ii) oligo(dT)20 probe, (iii) serum, and (iv) the binding sequence (SMPs, oligo(dT)20 , serum vs. oligo(dT)20 , serum and SMPs). RNA content was measured, and the expression of metallothionein-2A as possible prostate cancer marker was analyzed to demonstrate measurable RNA content with ability for RT-PCR detection. Isolation is possible on serum volume range (10-200 µL) without altering of efficiency or purity. Amount of SMPs can be reduced up to 5 µL, with optimal results within 10-30 µL SMPs. Volume of oligo(dT)20 does not affect efficiency, when used within 0.1-0.4 µL. This optimized protocol was also modified to fit needs of automated one-step single-tube analysis with identical efficiency compared to conventional setup. One-step analysis protocol is considered a promising simplification, making RNA isolation suitable for automatable process.

Glutathione modified CdTe quantum dots as a label for studying DNA interactions with platinum based cytostatics.

Cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin represent three generations of platinum based drugs applied successfully for cancer treatment. As a consequence of the employment of platinum based cytostatics in the cancer treatment, it became necessary to study the mechanism of their action. Current accepted opinion is the formation of Pt-DNA adducts, but the mechanism of their formation is still unclear. Nanomaterials, as a progressively developing branch, can offer a tool for studying the interactions of these drugs with DNA. In this study, fluorescent CdTe quantum dots (QDs, λem = 525 nm) were employed to investigate the interactions of platinum cytostatics (cisplatin, carboplatin, and oxaliplatin) with DNA fragment (500 bp, c = 25 µg/mL). Primarily, the fluorescent behavior of QDs in the presence of platinum cytostatics was monitored and major differences in the interaction of QDs with tested drugs were observed. It was found that the presence of carboplatin (c = 0.25 mg/mL) had no significant influence on QDs fluorescence; however cisplatin and oxaliplatin quenched the fluorescence significantly (average decrease of 20%) at the same concentration. Subsequently, the amount of platinum incorporated in DNA was determined by QDs fluorescence quenching. Best results were reached using oxaliplatin (9.4% quenching). Linear trend (R(2) = 0.9811) was observed for DNA platinated by three different concentrations of oxaliplatin (0.250, 0.125, and 0.063 mg/mL). Correlation with differential pulse voltammetric measurements provided linear trend (R(2) = 0.9511). As a conclusion, especially in the case of oxaliplatin-DNA adducts, the quenching was the most significant compared to cisplatin and nonquenching carboplatin.

Integrated chip electrophoresis and magnetic particle isolation used for detection of hepatitis B virus oligonucleotides.

Rapid and sensitive detection is a key step in the effective and early response to the global hazard of various viral diseases. In this study, an integrated isolation of hepatitis B virus (HBV)-specific DNA fragment by magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and its immediate analysis by microchip CGE was performed. Microfluidic CE chip was used to accommodate the complete process of viral DNA isolation by MNPs including hybridization and thermal denaturation followed by CE separation. Beforehand, calibration curves of HBV fragments were constructed. For isolation by MNPs, specific streptavidin-biotin interaction was used to bind complementary HBV fragment to magnetic particles. After analysis of isolated HBV by regular MNPs method, innovative approach was performed. The commercial CE chip (Bio-rad) was successfully used to execute HBV fragment isolation. Detection using LIF with detection limit of 1 ng/mL was accomplished.

Titanium dioxide nanoparticles: Recent progress in antimicrobial applications.

For decades, the antimicrobial applications of nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted the attention of scientists as a strategy for controlling the ever-increasing threat of multidrug-resistant microorganisms. The photo-induced antimicrobial properties of titanium dioxide (TiO2 ) NPs by ultraviolet (UV) light are well known. This review elaborates on the modern methods and antimicrobial mechanisms of TiO2 NPs and their modifications to better understand and utilize their potential in various biomedical applications. Additional compounds can be grafted onto TiO2 nanomaterial, leading to hybrid metallic or non-metallic materials. To improve the antimicrobial properties, many approaches involving TiO2 have been tested. The results of selected studies from the past few years covering the most recent trends in this field are discussed in this review. There is extensive evidence to show that TiO2 NPs can exhibit certain antimicrobial features with disputable roles of UV light. Hence, they are effective in treating bacterial infections, although the majority of these conclusions came from in vitro studies and in the presence of some additional nanomaterials. The methods of evaluation varied depending on the nature of the research while researchers incorporated different techniques, including determining the minimum inhibitory concentration, cell count, and using disk and well diffusion methods, with a noticeable indication that cell count was the most and dominant criterion used to evaluate the antimicrobial activity. This article is categorized under: Nanotechnology Approaches to Biology > Nanoscale Systems in Biology Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease.

Detection of microbial contamination based on uracil-selective synthetic receptors.

The here presented work is focused on the development of a method for detection of microbial contamination of food based on uracil-selective synthetic receptors. Because uracil may serve as an indicator of bacterial contamination, its selective and on-site detection may prevent spreading of foodborne diseases. The synthetic receptors were created by molecular imprinting. Molecularly imprinted polymers for selective uracil isolation were prepared by a non-covalent imprinting method using dopamine as a functional monomer. Detection of isolated uracil was performed by capillary electrophoresis with absorption detection (λ - 260 nm). The conditions of preparation of molecularly imprinted polymers, their binding properties, adsorption kinetics and selectivity were investigated in detail. Furthermore, the prepared polymer materials were used for selective isolation and detection of uracil from complex samples as tomato products by miniaturized electrophoretic system suggesting the potential of in situ analysis of real samples.

Direct Magnetic Bead-Based Extraction of MicroRNA from Urine with Capillary Electrophoretic Analysis Using Fluorescence Detection and Universal Label.

Short non-coding RNAs, specifically microRNAs (miRNAs), are of a great interest due to their presumed function in genome regulation. Moreover, miRNAs are currently perceived as potential biomarkers for numerous diseases; a variety of detection methods and sensing systems have therefore been studied. We present a magnetic-bead-based assay for specific miRNA isolation coupled with sensitive electrophoretic analysis with fluorescence detection. The magnetic separation step involves creating a duplex with targeted miR-141, which is subsequently cleaved from the magnetic bead surface with a specific endonuclease. The duplex is then determined using capillary electrophoresis with laser-induced fluorescence detection in the presence of the fluorescent dye PicoGreen for quantitating double-stranded DNA. The benefits of using microcolumn separation technique coupled with sensitive detection over traditionally used determination by fluorescence spectrometry include the fact that there is no need for a specific pre-labeled fluorescent probe. This significantly simplifies the method and reduces the costs. Cross-reactivity with mismatched oligonucleotides (3 and 5 mismatched bases) and different miRNAs (miR-124 and miR-150) was tested, demonstrating the specificity of the developed method for miRNA-141. This magnetic extraction method was demonstrated for the direct isolation and determination of miR-141 at different concentration levels from urine samples and the achieved nanomolar detection limit.

Antibacterial activity of AgNPs-TiO2 nanotubes: influence of different nanoparticle stabilizers.

Enhanced antibacterial properties of nanomaterials such as TiO2 nanotubes (TNTs) and silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) have attracted much attention in biomedicine and industry. The antibacterial properties of nanoparticles depend, among others, on the functionalization layer of the nanoparticles. However, the more complex information about the influence of different functionalization layers on antibacterial properties of nanoparticle decorated surfaces is still missing. Here we show the array of ∼50 nm diameter TNTs decorated with ∼50 nm AgNPs having different functionalization layers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone, branched polyethyleneimine, citrate, lipoic acid, and polyethylene glycol. To assess the antibacterial properties, the viability of Gram-positive (Staphylococcus aureus) and Gram-negative bacteria (Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) has been assessed. Our results showed that the functional layer of nanoparticles plays an important role in antibacterial properties and the synergistic effect such nanoparticles and TiO2 nanotubes have had different effects on adhesion and viability of G- and G+ bacteria. These findings could help researchers to optimally design any surfaces to be used as an antibacterial including the implantable titanium biomaterials.

Nanomaterials with active targeting as advanced antimicrobials.

With a growing health threat of bacterial resistance to antibiotics, the nanomaterials have been extensively studied as an alternative. It is assumed that antimicrobial nanomaterials can affect bacteria by several mechanisms simultaneously and thereby overcome antibiotic resistance. Another promising potential use is employing nanomaterials as nanocarriers for antibiotics in order to overcome bacterial defense mechanisms. The passive targeting of nanomaterials is the often used strategy for bacterial treatment, including intracellular infections of macrophages. Furthermore, the specific targeting enhances the efficacy of antimicrobials and reduces side effects. This review aims to discuss advantages, disadvantages, and challenges of nanomaterials in the context of the targeting strategies for antimicrobials as advanced tools for treatments of bacterial infections. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Infectious Disease.

Magnetic molecularly imprinted polymers used for selective isolation and detection of Staphylococcus aureus.

In this work, a novel method was developed, for isolation of S. aureus from complex (food) samples using molecular imprinting.  Dopamine was used as a functional monomer and fluorescence microscopy was used for detection. Conditions for preparation of molecularly imprinted polymers (MIPs), adsorption performance, adsorption kinetic, and selectivity of the polymeric layers were investigated. The various procedures were combined in a single extraction process, with the imprinted layer on the surface of the magnetic particles (magnetic MIPs). Subsequently, MIPs were used for extraction of S. aureus from milk and rice. Moreover, raw milk from cows with mastitis was tested successfully. Using this novel MIP-based method, it was possible to detect bacteria in milk at 1 × 103CFU·ml-1, which corresponds to the limit set in European Union legislation for microbial control of food.

Synergistic Effect of Chitosan and Selenium Nanoparticles on Biodegradation and Antibacterial Properties of Collagenous Scaffolds Designed for Infected Burn Wounds.

A highly porous scaffold is a desirable outcome in the field of tissue engineering. The porous structure mediates water-retaining properties that ensure good nutrient transportation as well as creates a suitable environment for cells. In this study, porous antibacterial collagenous scaffolds containing chitosan and selenium nanoparticles (SeNPs) as antibacterial agents were studied. The addition of antibacterial agents increased the application potential of the material for infected and chronic wounds. The morphology, swelling, biodegradation, and antibacterial activity of collagen-based scaffolds were characterized systematically to investigate the overall impact of the antibacterial additives. The additives visibly influenced the morphology, water­retaining properties as well as the stability of the materials in the presence of collagenase enzymes. Even at concentrations as low as 5 ppm of SeNPs, modified polymeric scaffolds showed considerable inhibition activity towards Gram-positive bacterial strains such as Staphylococcus aureus and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus epidermidis in a dose-dependent manner.

One-pot synthesis of natural amine-modified biocompatible carbon quantum dots with antibacterial activity.

In the present study, the thermal decomposition of citric acid in the presence of biogenic amine was used to synthesize four different functionalized carbon quantum dots (CQDs), namely, histamine-(HCQDs), putrescine-(PCQDs), cadaverine-(CCQDs) and spermine-(SCQDs). The thermal decomposition of the precursors resulted in a decrease in stability and the formation of surface amides via a cross-linking process between the carboxyl and amine groups. The deposition of biogenic amines was confirmed by a structural characterization of the synthesized CQDs. The resulting CQDs, with a net zero charge, exhibited excellent stability in environments with different pH values. Through a set of different cytotoxicity tests, the absence of gene mutations, apoptosis, necrosis or disruption in cell membranes revealed the high biocompatibility of the CQDs. The antimicrobial activity of the synthesized CQDs was investigated against different bacterial species (Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, and Klebsiella pneumonia). We determined the growth kinetics, production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), cell viability and changes in membrane integrity by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) for S. aureus ranged from 3.4 to 6.9 µg/mL. Regarding E.coli and K. pneumonia, all CQD formulations reduced growth, and the MICs were determined for CCQDs and HCQDs (6.9-19.4 µg/mL). The antibacterial activity mechanism was attributed to the oxidative stress generated after CQD treatment, which resulted in the destabilization of the bacterial membrane. The bacterial permeability to propidium iodide indicated a change in membrane integrity, and the effect of CQDs on the morphology of the bacterial cells was evidenced by SEM.

Zinc phosphate-based nanoparticles as alternatives to zinc oxide in diet of weaned piglets.

BACKGROUND: The high doses of zinc oxide (ZnO) administered orally to piglets for the prevention of diarrhea and increase of growth rate can contaminate pig farms and the surrounding environment. Therefore, there is a need to find a replacement of high doses of dietary ZnO with an equally effective alternative. In the present study, the effect of two formulations of zinc phosphate-based nanoparticles (ZnA and ZnC NPs) on growth performance, intestinal microbiota, antioxidant status, and intestinal and liver morphology was evaluated. A total of 100 weaned piglets were randomly divided into 10 equal groups with the base diet (control) or the base diet supplemented with ZnA, ZnC, or ZnO at concentrations 500, 1000, and 2000 mg Zn per kilogram of diet. Supplements were given to animals for 10 days. Fecal samples were collected on day 0, 5, 10 and 20. At the end of the treatment (day 10), three piglets from each group were sacrificed and analyzed. RESULTS: Comparing to that of control, the significantly higher piglet weight gain was observed in all piglet groups fed with ZnA (P < 0.05). Differences in the total aerobic bacteria and coliform counts in piglet feces after NPs supplementation compared to that of control and ZnO groups were also found (P < 0.05). The majority of aerobic culturable bacteria from the feces represented Escherichia (28.57-47.62%), Enterococcus (3.85-35.71%), and Streptococcus (3.70-42.31%) spp. A total of 542 Escherichia coli isolates were screened for the virulence genes STa, STb, Stx2, F4, and F18. The substantial occurrence of E. coli virulence factors was found on day 5, mainly in fimbrillary antigen and thermostable toxins, except for piglets fed by ZnC. Zn treatment decreased Zn blood levels in piglets fed with ZnO and ZnA (500 mg/kg) and increased in ZnC (2000 mg/kg) compared to that of control (P < 0.05). The antioxidant status of piglets was affected only by ZnA. While some changes in the liver and the intestinal morphology of piglets with NPs were observed, none were serious as reflected by the normal health status and increased weigh gain performance. CONCLUSIONS: Our results indicate that ZnA NPs have a positive effect on the piglet growth performance even at the lowest concentration. The prevalence of E. coli virulence factors was lowest in pigs supplemented with ZnC. Zinc phosphate-based nanoparticles may be an effective alternative to ZnO.

Essential Oils as a Feed Additives: Pharmacokinetics and Potential Toxicity in Monogastric Animals.

Essential oils (EOs) are now a hot topic in finding modern substitutes for antibiotics. Many studies have shown positive results and confirmed their high antibacterial activity both in vitro and in vivo. Deservedly, there is an attempt to use EOs as a substitute for antibiotics, which are currently limited by legislation in animal breeding. Given the potential of EOs, studies on their fate in the body need to be summarized. The content of EO's active substances varies depending on growing conditions and consequently on processing and storage. Their content also changes dynamically during the passage through the gastrointestinal tract and their effective concentration can be noticeably diluted at their place of action (small intestine and colon). Based on the solubility of the individual EO's active substances, they are eliminated from the body at different rates. Despite a strong antimicrobial effect, some oils can be toxic to the body and cause damage to the liver, kidneys, or gastrointestinal tissues. Reproductive toxicity has been reported for Origanum vulgare and Mentha arvensis. Several publications also address the effect on the genome. It has been observed that EOs can show both genoprotective effects (Syzygium aromaticum) and genotoxicity, as is the case of Cinnamomum camphor. This review shows that although oils are mainly studied as promising antimicrobials, it is also important to assess animal safety.