Four-dimensional live imaging of apical biosynthetic trafficking reveals a post-Golgi sorting role of apical endosomal intermediates.

Emerging data suggest that in polarized epithelial cells newly synthesized apical and basolateral plasma membrane proteins traffic through different endosomal compartments en route to the respective cell surface. However, direct evidence for trans-endosomal pathways of plasma membrane proteins is still missing and the mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Here, we imaged the entire biosynthetic route of rhodopsin-GFP, an apical marker in epithelial cells, synchronized through recombinant conditional aggregation domains, in live Madin-Darby canine kidney cells using spinning disk confocal microscopy. Our experiments directly demonstrate that rhodopsin-GFP traffics through apical recycling endosomes (AREs) that bear the small GTPase Rab11a before arriving at the apical membrane. Expression of dominant-negative Rab11a drastically reduced apical delivery of rhodopsin-GFP and caused its missorting to the basolateral membrane. Surprisingly, functional inhibition of dynamin-2 trapped rhodopsin-GFP at AREs and caused aberrant accumulation of coated vesicles on AREs, suggesting a previously unrecognized role for dynamin-2 in the scission of apical carrier vesicles from AREs. A second set of experiments, using a unique method to carry out total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) from the apical side, allowed us to visualize the fusion of rhodopsin-GFP carrier vesicles, which occurred randomly all over the apical plasma membrane. Furthermore, two-color TIRFM showed that Rab11a-mCherry was present in rhodopsin-GFP carrier vesicles and was rapidly released upon fusion onset. Our results provide direct evidence for a role of AREs as a post-Golgi sorting hub in the biosynthetic route of polarized epithelia, with Rab11a regulating cargo sorting at AREs and carrier vesicle docking at the apical membrane.

High-throughput, multiparameter analysis of single cells.

Heterogeneity of cell populations in various biological systems has been widely recognized, and the highly heterogeneous nature of cancer cells has been emerging with clinical relevance. Single-cell analysis using a combination of high-throughput and multiparameter approaches is capable of reflecting cell-to-cell variability, and at the same time of unraveling the complexity and interdependence of cellular processes in the individual cells of a heterogeneous population. In this review, analytical methods and microfluidic tools commonly used for high-throughput, multiparameter single-cell analysis of DNA, RNA, and proteins are discussed. Applications and limitations of currently available technologies for cancer research and diagnostics are reviewed in the light of the ultimate goal to establish clinically applicable assays.

Micropatterning for quantitative analysis of protein-protein interactions in living cells.

We present a method to identify and characterize interactions between a fluorophore-labeled protein ('prey') and a membrane protein ('bait') in live mammalian cells. Cells are plated on micropatterned surfaces functionalized with antibodies to the bait extracellular domain. Bait-prey interactions are assayed through the redistribution of the fluorescent prey. We used the method to characterize the interaction between human CD4, the major co-receptor in T-cell activation, and human Lck, the protein tyrosine kinase essential for early T-cell signaling. We measured equilibrium associations by quantifying Lck redistribution to CD4 micropatterns and studied interaction dynamics by photobleaching experiments and single-molecule imaging. In addition to the known zinc clasp structure, the Lck membrane anchor in particular had a major impact on the Lck-CD4 interaction, mediating direct binding and further stabilizing the interaction of other Lck domains. In total, membrane anchorage increased the interaction lifetime by two orders of magnitude.

Genetically encoded Förster resonance energy transfer sensors for the conformation of the Src family kinase Lck.

The current model for regulation of the Src family kinase member Lck postulates a strict correlation between structural condensation of the kinase backbone and catalytic activity. The key regulatory tyrosine 505, when phosphorylated, interacts with the Src homology 2 domain on the same molecule, effectively suppressing tyrosine kinase activity. Dephosphorylation of Tyr(505) upon TCR engagement is supposed to lead to unfolding of the kinase structure and enhanced kinase activity. Studies on the conformation-activity relationship of Lck in living cells have not been possible to date because of the lack of tools providing spatiotemporal resolution of conformational changes. We designed a biochemically active, conformation-sensitive Förster resonance energy transfer biosensor of human Lck using the complete kinase backbone. Live cell imaging in Jurkat cells demonstrated that our biosensor performed according to Src family kinase literature. A Tyr(505) to Phe mutation opened the structure of the Lck sensor, while changing the autophosphorylation site Tyr(394) to Phe condensed the molecule. The tightly packed structure of a high-affinity YEEI tail mutant showed that under steady-state conditions the bulk of Lck molecules exist in a mean conformational configuration. Although T cell activation commenced normally, we could not detect a change in the conformational status of our Lck biosensor during T cell activation. Together with biochemical data we conclude that during T cell activation, Lck is accessible to very subtle regulatory mechanisms without the need for acute changes in Tyr(505) and Tyr(394) phosphorylation and conformational alterations.

Sequential cooperation of CD2 and CD48 in the buildup of the early TCR signalosome.

The buildup of TCR signaling microclusters containing adaptor proteins and kinases is prerequisite for T cell activation. One hallmark in this process is association of the TCR with lipid raft microdomains enriched in GPI-proteins that have potential to act as accessory molecules for TCR signaling. In this study, we show that GPI-anchored CD48 but not CD59 was recruited to the immobilized TCR/CD3 complex upon activation of T cells. CD48 reorganization was vital for T cell IL-2 production by mediating lateral association of the early signaling component linker for activated T cells (LAT) to the TCR/CD3 complex. Furthermore, we identified CD2 as an adaptor linking the Src protein tyrosine kinase Lck and the CD48/LAT complex to TCR/CD3: CD2 associated with TCR/CD3 upon T cell activation irrespective of CD48 expression, while association of CD48 and LAT with the TCR/CD3 complex depended on CD2. Consequently, our data indicate that CD2 and CD48 cooperate hierarchically in the buildup of the early TCR signalosome; CD2 functions as the master switch recruiting CD48 and Lck. CD48 in turn shuttles the transmembrane adapter molecule LAT.

Antimicrobial and immunostimulatory peptide, KLK, induces an increase in cytosolic Ca²(+) concentration by mobilizing Ca²(+) from intracellular stores.

The cationic antimicrobial immunomodulatory peptide, KLK (KLKL5KLK), exerts profound membrane interacting properties, impacting on ultrastructure and fluidity. KLK-membrane interactions that lead to these alterations require the ability of the peptide to move into an α-helical conformation. We show that KLK induces an increase of the intracellular Ca²(+) concentration in human T24 cells. The effect of KLK is buffer-sensitive, as it is detected when HBSS buffer is used, but not with PBS. This, together with the lack of effect of the middle leucine-to-proline-substituted peptide derivative [KPK (KLKLLPLLKLK)], indicates that it is the conformational propensity rather than the net positive charge that contributes to the effect of KLK on intracellular Ca²(+) level of T24 cells. We show that, although KLK slightly stimulates Ca²(+) influx into the cell, the bulk increase of Ca²(+) levels is due to KLK-induced depletion of intracellular Ca²(+) stores. Finally, we demonstrate a KLK-induced switch of PS (phosphatidylserine) from the inner to the outer plasma membrane leaflet that contributes to the onset of early apoptotic changes in these cells.

Membrane-associated stress proteins: more than simply chaperones.

The protein- and/or lipid-mediated association of chaperone proteins to membranes is a widespread phenomenon and implicated in a number of physiological and pathological events that were earlier partially or completely overlooked. A temporary association of certain HSPs with membranes can re-establish the fluidity and bilayer stability and thereby restore the membrane functionality during stress conditions. The fluidity and microdomain organization of membranes are decisive factors in the perception and transduction of stresses into signals that trigger the activation of specific HS genes. Conversely, the membrane association of HSPs may result in the inactivation of membrane-perturbing signals, thereby switch off the heat shock response. Interactions between certain HSPs and specific lipid microdomains ("rafts") might be a previously unrecognized means for the compartmentalization of HSPs to specific signaling platforms, where key signaling proteins are known to be concentrated. Any modulations of the membranes, especially the raft-lipid composition of the cells can alter the extracellular release and thus the immuno-stimulatory activity of certain HSPs. Reliable techniques, allowing mapping of the composition and dynamics of lipid microdomains and simultaneously the spatio-temporal localization of HSPs in and near the plasma membrane can provide suitable means with which to address fundamental questions, such as how HSPs are transported to and translocated through the plasma membrane. The possession of such information is critical if we are to target the membrane association principles of HSPs for successful drug development in most various diseases.

High throughput FRET screening of the plasma membrane based on TIRFM.

Monitoring protein function with high throughput at individual cell level is of high interest both for basic research and diagnostic applications. For this, following the changes in fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) between a donor/acceptor pair, genetically encoded in the proteins of interest, is a frequently used tool. As proteins attached to or located in the plasma membrane represent a considerable fraction of total proteins, there is a need for high throughput imaging techniques suited for observation of proteins in the cell membrane only. A system is presented, which allows rapid imaging of large areas via total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy (TIRFM) conditions, using a focus-hold system, multiwavelength excitation and dual color detection. The developed imaging system enables screening of large numbers of cells under TIRFM illumination combined with FRET imaging, thereby providing the means to record, e.g., FRET-efficiency of a membrane-associated protein labeled with a donor-acceptor pair. The capability of the system to perform live-FRET scanning with TIRFM on stoichiometric FRET constructs, reaching throughput of up to 1,000 cells/s at the optical resolution limit is demonstrated. A comparison with confocal microscopy shows that TIRFM offers a 4.2-fold advantage in our conditions over confocal microscopy in detecting contributions from membrane-localized proteins.

Prion protein resides in membrane microclusters of the immunological synapse during lymphocyte activation.

Expression of prion protein (PrP) has been reported for a variety of cell types including neuronal cells, haematopoietic stem cells, antigen-presenting cells, as well as lymphocytes. However, besides this widespread occurrence little is known about the physiological roles exhibited by this enigmatic protein. In this study, the contribution of PrP to the classical T-lymphocyte activation process was characterized by clustering the T-cell receptor component CD3epsilon as well as PrP with soluble and surface-immobilized antibodies, respectively. We present evidence that PrP is a component of signaling structures recently described as plasma membrane microclusters established during T-lymphocyte activation. The formation of immunological synapses, however, did not depend on the presence of PrP as proven by siRNA knockdown experiments, indicating very subtle physiological roles of PrP in vivo within the immune system.

The significance of lipid composition for membrane activity: new concepts and ways of assessing function.

In the last decade or so, it has been realised that membranes do not just have a lipid-bilayer structure in which proteins are embedded or with which they associate. Structures are dynamic and contain areas of heterogeneity which are vital for their formation. In this review, we discuss some of the ways in which these dynamic and heterogeneous structures have implications during stress and in relation to certain human diseases. A particular stress is that of temperature which may instigate adaptation in poikilotherms or appropriate defensive responses during fever in mammals. Recent data emphasise the role of membranes in sensing temperature changes and in controlling a regulatory loop with chaperone proteins. This loop seems to need the existence of specific membrane microdomains and also includes association of chaperone (heat stress) proteins with the membrane. The role of microdomains is then discussed further in relation to various human pathologies such as cardiovascular disease, cancer and neurodegenerative diseases. The concept of modifying membrane lipids (lipid therapy) as a means for treating such pathologies is then introduced. Examples are given when such methods have been shown to have benefit. In order to study membrane microheterogeneity in detail and to elucidate possible molecular mechanisms that account for alteration in membrane function, new methods are needed. In the second part of the review, we discuss ultra-sensitive and ultra-resolution imaging techniques. These include atomic force microscopy, single particle tracking, single particle tracing and various modern fluorescence methods. Finally, we deal with computing simulation of membrane systems. Such methods include coarse-grain techniques and Monte Carlo which offer further advances into molecular dynamics. As computational methods advance they will have more application by revealing the very subtle interactions that take place between the lipid and protein components of membranes - and which are so essential to their function.

A Double-Hybridization Approach for the Transcription- and Amplification-Free Detection of Specific mRNA on a Microarray.

A double-hybridization approach was developed for the enzyme-free detection of specific mRNA of a housekeeping gene. Targeted mRNA was immobilized by hybridization to complementary DNA capture probes spotted onto a microarray. A second hybridization step of Cy5-conjugated label DNA to another section of the mRNA enabled specific labeling of the target. Thus, enzymatic artifacts could be avoided by omitting transcription and amplification steps. This manuscript describes the development of capture probe molecules used in the transcription- and amplification-free analysis of RPLP0 mRNA in isolated total RNA. An increase in specific signal was found with increasing length of the target-specific section of capture probes. Unspecific signal comprising spot autofluorescence and unspecific label binding did not correlate with the capture length. An additional spacer between the specific part of the capture probe and the substrate attachment site increased the signal significantly only on a short capture probe of approximately 30 nt length.

A microfluidic multiwell chip for enzyme-free detection of mRNA from few cells.

Isogenic cell populations possess heterogeneous gene expression patterns. Most methods for mRNA expression analysis start with the reverse transcription of mRNA into cDNA, a process that can introduce strong signal variations not related to the actual mRNA levels. Miniaturized lab-on-a-chip systems offer properties - e.g. low sample dilution, low contamination - that enable new reaction schemes for molecular analyses. To enable transcription-free mRNA expression analysis of few single cells, a one-step cell lysis, target labelling and hybridisation approach as well as a corresponding passive multiwell chip with a volume of 25.5 nL/well were developed. The method enabled the parallel analysis of up to 96 samples and 6 target genes per sample. Preceding light microscopy of the living cells allowed correlating mRNA levels and cell number. As a proof-of-principle, the pancreatic cancer cell line Panc-1 was investigated for expression heterogeneity of a reference gene plus 5 genes reported to be overexpressed in cancer stem cells (CSCs). A good correlation (r(51)=0.739, p<0.001; rs(51)=0.744, p<0.001) between the cell number per well and the number of detected reference gene mRNA confirmed the proper function of the device. Moreover, a heterogeneous expression of the CSC-associated target genes was found which matched well with reports on the presence of CSCs in the Panc-1 cell line.

A microfluidic platform for transcription- and amplification-free detection of zepto-mole amounts of nucleic acid molecules.

Here we report the development of a device for the transcription- and amplification-free detection of DNA and RNA molecules down to the zepto-mole range. A microfluidic chip with a built-in microarray was used for manipulation of nano-liter sample volumes. Specific staining and immobilization of the target molecules was achieved via a double hybridization approach thereby avoiding bias due to enzymatic processes like reverse transcription and PCR amplification. Therefore, target molecules were indirectly labeled by pre-hybridization to complementary Cy5-labeled probes. The remaining single-stranded portion of each target molecule could subsequently hybridize to complementary capture probes of a microarray. Thus a target-mediated immobilization of labeled DNA took place. By means of an ultra-sensitive fluorescence readout, all molecules hybridized to the microarray could be detected. The combination of minimized sample volume and single molecule detection yielded a detection limit of 39 fM (831 molecules in 35.4 nl assay volume) for target DNA and 16 fM (338 molecules) for target RNA after 1h on-chip hybridization.

DIC image reconstruction on large cell scans.

The width of the emission spectrum of a common fluorophore allows only for a limited number of spectral distinct fluorescent markers in the visible spectrum, which is also the regime where CCD-cameras are used in microscopy. For imaging of cells or tissues, it is required to obtain an image from which the morphology of the whole cell can be extracted. This is usually achieved by differential interference contrast (DIC) microscopy. These images have a pseudo-3D appearance, easily interpreted by the human brain. In the age of high throughput and high content screening, manual image processing is not an option. Conventional algorithms for image processing often use threshold-based criteria to identify objects of interest. These algorithms fail for DIC images as they have a range from dim to bright with an intermediate intensity equal to the background, so as to produce no clear object boundary. In this article we compare different reconstruction methods for up to 100 MB-large DIC images and implement a new iterative reconstruction method based on the Hilbert Transform that enables identification of cell boundaries with standard threshold algorithms.

Micro-structured peptide surfaces for the detection of high-affinity peptide-receptor interactions in living cells.

Peptide ligands have great potential as selective agents for diagnostic imaging and therapeutic targeting of human cancers. A number of high-throughput assays for screening potential candidate peptides have been developed. Although these screening assays are indispensable for the identification of peptide ligands at a large scale, it is crucial to validate peptide binding and selectivity for targeted receptors in a live-cell context. For testing high-affinity peptide-receptor interactions in the plasma membrane of living cells, we developed cell-resistant, micro-structured glass surfaces with high-density and high-contrast peptide features. Cell adhesion and recruitment of fluorescent receptors to micro-patterned peptides in the live-cell membrane were evaluated by reflection interference contrast (RIC) and total internal reflection (TIRF) microscopy, respectively. To demonstrate both the specificity and modularity of the assay, co-patterning of fluorescent receptors with three different immobilized micro-structured ligands was shown: first, interaction of green fluorescent protein (GFP)-tagged epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor expressed in Jurkat cells with immobilized EGF was detected and quantified. Second, using Jurkat cells, we demonstrated specific interaction of yellow fluorescent protein (YFP)-tagged ß3 integrin with c(RGDfK) peptide. Third, we identified indirect recruitment of GFP-tagged α5 integrin to an 11-mer peptide. In summary, our results show that the developed micro-structured surfaces are a useful tool for the validation and quantification of peptide-receptor interactions in their natural cellular environment.

Aquaporin 5 expression in mouse mammary gland cells is not driven by promoter methylation.

Several studies have revealed that aquaporins play a role in tumor progression and invasion. In breast carcinomas, high levels of aquaporin 5 (AQP5), a membrane protein involved in water transport, have been linked to increased cell proliferation and migration, thus facilitating tumor progression. Despite the potential role of AQP5 in mammary oncogenesis, the mechanisms controlling mammary AQP5 expression are poorly understood. In other tissues, AQP5 expression has been correlated with its promoter methylation, yet, very little is known about AQP5 promoter methylation in the mammary gland. In this work, we used the mouse mammary gland cell line EpH4, in which we controlled AQP5 expression via the steroid hormone dexamethasone (Dex) to further investigate mechanisms regulating AQP5 expression. In this system, we observed a rapid drop of AQP5 mRNA levels with a delay of several hours in AQP5 protein, suggesting transcriptional control of AQP5 levels. Yet, AQP5 expression was independent of its promoter methylation, or to the presence of negative glucocorticoid receptor elements (nGREs) in its imminent promoter region, but was rather influenced by the cell proliferative state or cell density. We conclude that AQP5 promoter methylation is not a universal mechanism for AQP5 regulation and varies on cell and tissue type.

Cell surface localised Hsp70 is a cancer specific regulator of clathrin-independent endocytosis.

The stress inducible heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is present specifically on the tumour cell surface yet without a pro-tumour function revealed. We show here that cell surface localised Hsp70 (sHsp70) supports clathrin-independent endocytosis (CIE) in melanoma models. Remarkably, ability of Hsp70 to cluster on lipid rafts in vitro correlated with larger nano-domain sizes of sHsp70 in high sHsp70 expressing cell membranes. Interfering with Hsp70 oligomerisation impaired sHsp70-mediated facilitation of endocytosis. Altogether our findings suggest that a sub-fraction of sHsp70 co-localising with lipid rafts enhances CIE through oligomerisation and clustering. Targeting or utilising this tumour specific mechanism may represent an additional benefit for anti-cancer therapy.

Co-localization of CD3 and prion protein in Jurkat lymphocytes after hypothermal stimulation.

While long-term effects of temperature treatment in respect of, e.g., gene-expression and cellular function have already been studied in some detail, nothing is known on the physiological responses of lymphocytes during short-term hypothermal shifts. In this report, we characterized the effects of such a stimulation using the human lymphocyte cell line Jurkat E6.1 and present evidence that warming from 4 to 37 degrees C for only 2 min is sufficient to cause co-localization of CD3, prion protein and the lipid-raft ganglioside GM1 paralleling lymphocyte activation as observed by Ca(2+) mobilization and mitogen-activated protein kinase-phosphorylation.

Lck mediates signal transmission from CD59 to the TCR/CD3 pathway in Jurkat T cells.

The glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored molecule CD59 has been implicated in the modulation of T cell responses, but the underlying molecular mechanism of CD59 influencing T cell signaling remained unclear. Here we analyzed Jurkat T cells stimulated via anti-CD3ε- or anti-CD59-coated surfaces, using time-resolved single-cell Ca(2+) imaging as a read-out for stimulation. This analysis revealed a heterogeneous Ca(2+) response of the cell population in a stimulus-dependent manner. Further analysis of T cell receptor (TCR)/CD3 deficient or overexpressing cells showed that CD59-mediated signaling is strongly dependent on TCR/CD3 surface expression. In protein co-patterning and fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments no direct physical interaction was observed between CD59 and CD3 at the plasma membrane upon anti-CD59 stimulation. However, siRNA-mediated protein knock-downs of downstream signaling molecules revealed that the Src family kinase Lck and the adaptor molecule linker of activated T cells (LAT) are essential for both signaling pathways. Furthermore, flow cytometry measurements showed that knock-down of Lck accelerates CD3 re-expression at the cell surface after anti-CD59 stimulation similar to what has been observed upon direct TCR/CD3 stimulation. Finally, physically linking Lck to CD3ζ completely abolished CD59-triggered Ca(2+) signaling, while signaling was still functional upon direct TCR/CD3 stimulation. Altogether, we demonstrate that Lck mediates signal transmission from CD59 to the TCR/CD3 pathway in Jurkat T cells, and propose that CD59 may act via Lck to modulate T cell responses.

The complex function of hsp70 in metastatic cancer.

Elevated expression of the inducible heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70) is known to correlate with poor prognosis in many cancers. Hsp70 confers survival advantage as well as resistance to chemotherapeutic agents, and promotes tumor cell invasion. At the same time, tumor-derived extracellular Hsp70 has been recognized as a "chaperokine", activating antitumor immunity. In this review we discuss localization dependent functions of Hsp70 in the context of invasive cancer. Understanding the molecular principles of metastasis formation steps, as well as interactions of the tumor cells with the microenvironment and the immune system is essential for fighting metastatic cancer. Although Hsp70 has been implicated in different steps of the metastatic process, the exact mechanisms of its action remain to be explored. Known and potential functions of Hsp70 in controlling or modulating of invasion and metastasis are discussed.