Healthcare-associated hepatitis B and C transmission to patients in the EU/EEA and UK: a systematic review of reported outbreaks between 2006 and 2021.

Healthcare-associated transmission was the second most common hepatitis B (HBV) and hepatitis C (HCV) transmission route according to 2006-2012 European surveillance data, but data quality and completeness issues hinder comprehensive characterisation of this important issue. We carried out a systematic review of published literature on healthcare-associated transmission of HBV or HCV in European Union (EU) and European Economic Area (EEA) countries and the United Kingdom to complement surveillance data and identify higher-risk settings. We searched the PubMed and Embase databases and grey literature over the period January 2006 to September 2021, for publications reporting transmission events after 2000 in the EU/EEA and UK related to a healthcare setting or procedure. We collected data on the country, number of patients, setting type and route of transmission. In 65 publications from 16 countries, 43 HBV and 48 HCV events were identified resulting in 442 newly infected patients. Most events were reported from Italy (7 HBV and 12 HCV), Germany (8 HBV and 5 HCV) and the United Kingdom (8 HBV and 5 HCV). The number of patients infected from a single source within an event ranged from 1 to 53. Five large outbreaks of over 20 cases were identified, including two in Poland and one each in Belgium, Hungary and Slovakia. The majority of transmission events occurred through blood transfusions or in dialysis units. However, there were a number of outbreaks in seemingly low risk settings such as CT/MRI scanning units. A failure to adequately follow infection prevention control (IPC) precautions was reported in 30% of included studies. Healthcare-associated transmission of hepatitis B and C continues to occur in a range of community and hospital settings across EU/EEA countries and often results in large outbreaks, although the true extent of the situation cannot be fully determined due to under-reporting. Strict IPC precautions should be implemented across all healthcare settings and regularly audited, and surveillance systems strengthened and standardised to allow for comprehensive and consistent reporting of nosocomial transmission of hepatitis across the EU.

Q fever in Bulgaria: Laboratory and epidemiological findings on human cases and outbreaks, 2011 to 2017.

BackgroundQ fever is a zoonosis, included in category B of particularly dangerous infectious agents and as such merits careful surveillance and regular updating of the information about its distribution.AimThis observational retrospective study aimed to provide an overview of Q fever incidence in Bulgaria in the period 2011 to 2017.MethodsAggregated surveillance data from Bulgaria's mandatory surveillance system, laboratory data on individual samples received at the National Reference Laboratory Rickettsiae and Cell Cultures and outbreak reports sent by the regional health authorities to the National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, were used in this analysis. Cases were described by year, region, age group and most commonly identified risk behaviours.ResultsA total of 139 confirmed cases were reported in the study period (average annual incidence: 0.27 cases/100,000 inhabitants). No seasonality or trend in reported cases was observed. Cases were mostly sporadic, with two small outbreaks in 2017. Identified risk behaviours among cases were occupational exposure and consumption of milk and dairy products, although exposure data were incomplete. The male/female ratio was 1.4. The identification and resolution of the two rural outbreaks in 2017 with a total of 18 cases involved good practices: active case finding and collaboration between public health and veterinary authorities.ConclusionBetween 2011 and 2017, Bulgaria retained low Q fever incidence, mostly sporadic cases and two small outbreaks. Occupational exposure and consumption of milk and dairy products were the most often reported likely exposures among cases. The outbreak investigations demonstrate the application of good control practices.

Evaluation of the SD bioline cholera rapid diagnostic test during the 2016 cholera outbreak in Lusaka, Zambia.

OBJECTIVE: To assess the performance of the SD Bioline Cholera Ag O1/O139 rapid diagnostic test (RDT) compared to a reference standard combining culture and PCR for the diagnosis of cholera cases during an outbreak. METHODS: RDT and bacterial culture were performed on site using fresh stools collected from cholera suspected cases, and from stools enriched in alkaline peptone water. Dried stool samples on filter paper were tested for V. cholerae by PCR in Lusaka (as part of a laboratory technology transfer project) and at a reference laboratory in Paris, France. A sample was considered positive for cholera by the reference standard if any of the culture or PCR tests was positive for V. cholerae O1 or O139. RESULTS: Among the 170 samples tested with SD Bioline and compared to the reference standard, the RDT showed a sensitivity of 90.9% (95% CI: 81.3-96.6) and specificity of 95.2% (95% CI: 89.1-98.4). After enrichment, the sensitivity was 95.5% (95% CI: 87.3-99.1) and specificity 100% (95% CI: 96.5-100). CONCLUSION: The observed sensitivity and specificity were within recommendations set by the Global Task Force for Cholera Control on the use of cholera RDT (sensitivity = 90%; specificity = 85%). Although the sample size was small, our findings suggest that the SD Bioline RDT could be used in the field to rapidly alert public health officials to the likely presence of cholera cases when an outbreak is suspected.

Echovirus 30 in Bulgaria during the European Upsurge of the Virus, 2017-2018.

In 2018, an increase in echovirus 30 (E30) detections was reported in some European countries. To assess the circulation and phylogenetic relationships of E30 in Bulgaria, E30 samples identified at the National Reference Laboratory for Enteroviruses, National Centre of Infectious and Parasitic Diseases, Bulgaria (NRL for Enteroviruses) in 2017 and 2018 were subjected to sequencing and phylogenetic analysis. The present study revealed that sample positivity did not significantly increase in Bulgaria during the European upsurge. E30 was identified in six patients, two of whom were epidemiologically linked. The maximum-likelihood phylogenetic tree showed that sequences from five patients belonged to the G1 lineage (clades G1a and G1b). The sequence from one patient belonged to the G2 lineage and was grouped closer to sequences from the last E30 outbreak in Bulgaria in 2012. No recombination events were detected. The European E30 upsurge in 2018 was caused by two clades, and one of them was G1. The fact that the majority of the Bulgarian samples belonged to G1 indicated that the virus was present in the country but did not cause a local upsurge. Phylogenetic and epidemiological data indicated sporadic E30 cases and a possible shift towards G1 lineage in 2017 and 2018.

Rhinovirus Genotypes Circulating in Bulgaria, 2018-2021.

Rhinoviruses (RV) are one of the most common causative agents of respiratory infections, with significant socioeconomic impact. RV infections are not notifiable in Bulgaria, and little is known about the different RV genotypes circulating in the country. This study aims to investigate the diversity of RV genotypes that were circulating in Bulgaria in the period 2018-2021 in samples from ILI/ARI patients. Genotype assignment was based on sequencing and phylogenetic analysis of the 5' untranslated region and the VP4-VP2 region. Out of a total of 1385 nasopharyngeal swabs tested, 166 were RV-positive (RV detection rate: 11.99% (166/1385)). Those with a cycle threshold <25 were selected for genotyping (n = 63). RV isolates were successfully genotyped and classified into 34 genotypes within Rhinovirus A (RV-A), Rhinovirus B (RV-B) and Rhinovirus C (RV-C) species. Presumptive recombination events between the 5'UTR and VP4-VP2 regions were detected in three of the isolates. RV-A and RV-C were the prevalent RV species, with significantly more frequent detections of RV-A in the years before the COVID-19 pandemic compared to the post-pandemic period, when RV-C prevailed. The present study is the first to determine RV genotypes in Bulgaria and the circulation of RV-C has been described for the first time in the country.

High vaccine confidence and strong approval of the mandatory immunization schedule among Bulgarian general practitioners in 2022.

In a context of recently decreasing childhood immunization coverage and low uptake of COVID-19 vaccines in Bulgaria, this study measures vaccine hesitancy among general practitioners (GPs) in the country, as they are central to forming patients' attitudes. In 2022, a face-to-face survey was conducted through a simple random sample from an exhaustive national database of Bulgarian GPs. This study measured attitudes on vaccine importance, safety, and effectiveness, and attitudes toward the Bulgarian immunization schedule. Information was collected on demographic and GP practice characteristics and possible predictors of vaccine confidence in order to test for associations with attitudes toward immunization. GP attitudes toward vaccines and the immunization schedule in Bulgaria were generally positive. Among 358 respondents, 351 (98%,95%CI96-99%) strongly agreed/agreed that vaccines are important, 352 (98%,95%CI96-99%) that vaccines are effective, and 341 (95%,95%CI93-97%) that vaccines are safe. 347 respondents (97%,95%CI95-98%) affirmed that "it's good that vaccines from the children's immunization schedule are mandatory", and 331 (92%,95%CI89-95%) agreed with the statement "Bulgaria's childhood immunization has my approval". Trust in information from official institutions was among the strongest predictors of vaccine confidence. Respondents' vaccine confidence levels are within the ranges reported by GPs in other European countries and above those reported within the general Bulgarian population. GPs' vaccine confidence is highly associated with trust in official institutions. It is important to maintain trust in official institutions and to support GPs in communicating vaccine knowledge with patients so that vaccine hesitancy in the general population is countered.

Bulgarian General Practitioners' Communication Styles about Child Vaccinations, Mainly Focused on Parental Decision Making in the Context of a Mandatory Immunization Schedule.

The communication practices of general practitioners in relation with vaccines have not been a topic of wide scientific interest. In this article, we outline them in the context of Bulgaria. A representative, cross-sectional, quantitative, face-to-face survey was conducted among 358 Bulgarian general practitioners in 2022 using simple random sampling. We conducted an exploratory factor analysis using questions about the role of the GPs, which measure models of communication. Based on the factor analysis, we distinguished four communication styles. They were called: active communicator, restrictive communicator, informing communicator, and strained communicator. One-way ANOVA and the T-test were carried out to explore the connections between factor scores (communication styles) and other variables. One of the most important results in the study was that the informing physician (emphasizing the choice of the parents) was the most common model in Bulgaria. This is somewhat contradictory, because of the mandatory status of most vaccines. We found connections between the communication styles and other variables-such as the type of settlement, having a hesitant parent in the practice, recommendations of non-mandatory vaccines, and experience with vaccine-preventable diseases. On the basis of the factor analysis and analysis of relationships with other variables, we reached the conclusion that in Bulgaria, hesitant parents are not sufficiently involved in active, effective communication about vaccines by GPs.

NS4B self-interaction through conserved C-terminal elements is required for the establishment of functional hepatitis C virus replication complexes.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is an important human pathogen, persistently infecting more than 170 million individuals worldwide. Studies of the HCV life cycle have become possible with the development of cell culture systems supporting the replication of viral RNA and the production of infectious virus. However, the exact functions of individual proteins, especially of nonstructural protein 4B (NS4B), remain poorly understood. NS4B triggers the formation of specific, vesicular membrane rearrangements, referred to as membranous webs, which have been reported to represent sites of HCV RNA replication. However, the mechanism of vesicle induction is not known. In this study, a panel of 15 mutants carrying substitutions in the highly conserved NS4B C-terminal domain was generated. Five mutations had only a minor effect on replication, but two of them enhanced assembly and release of infectious virus. Ten mutants were replication defective and used for selection of pseudoreversions. Most of the pseudoreversions also localized to the highly conserved NS4B C-terminal domain and were found to restore replication competence upon insertion into the corresponding primary mutant. Importantly, pseudoreversions restoring replication competence also restored heterotypic NS4B self-interaction, which was disrupted by the primary mutation. Finally, electron microscopy analyses of membrane alterations induced by NS4B mutants revealed striking morphological abnormalities, which were restored to wild-type morphology by the corresponding pseudoreversion. These findings demonstrate the important role of the C-terminal domain in NS4B self-interaction and the formation of functional HCV replication complexes.

Characterization of the RND-type multidrug efflux pump MexAB-OprM of the plant pathogen Pseudomonas syringae.

In gram-negative bacteria, transporters belonging to the RND family are the transporters most relevant for resistance to antimicrobial compounds. In Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a clinically important pathogen, the RND-type pump MexAB-OprM has been recognized as one of the major multidrug efflux systems. Here, homologues of MexAB-OprM in the plant pathogens Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola 1448A, P. syringae pv. syringae B728a, and P. syringae pv. tomato DC3000 were identified, and mexAB-oprM-deficient mutants were generated. Determination of MICs revealed that mutation of MexAB-OprM dramatically reduced the tolerance to a broad range of antimicrobials. Moreover, the ability of the mexAB-oprM-deficient mutants to multiply in planta was reduced. RNA dot blot hybridization revealed growth-dependent regulation of the mexAB-oprM operon in P. syringae; the expression of this operon was maximal in early exponential phase and decreased gradually during further growth.