Establishment of PANDA - a new human pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cell line with 3D cell culture technology.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is a highly aggressive type of malignancy with one of the worst prognoses amongst any type of cancer. Surgery is applicable only to the limited number of patients with locally resectable tumors and currently represents the only curative treatment option. Treatment with chemotherapy and radiotherapy can only extend patient survival. Despite advances in conventional therapies, the five-year survival of PDAC remained largely unchanged. New in vitro and in vivo models are therefore urgently needed to investigate this type of cancer. Here, we present the establishment and characterization of a novel pancreatic cancer cell line, isolated from a patient with PDAC. Cell line abbreviated as PANDA (PANncreatic Ductal Adenocarcinoma) was established with an optimized 3D culture protocol published previously by our group. The new cancer cell line "PANDA" represents a novel in vitro approach for PDAC cancer research and new therapy testing.

Effect of Cold Atmospheric Plasma on Epigenetic Changes, DNA Damage, and Possibilities for Its Use in Synergistic Cancer Therapy.

Cold atmospheric plasma has great potential for use in modern medicine. It has been used in the clinical treatment of skin diseases and chronic wounds, and in laboratory settings it has shown effects on selective decrease in tumour-cell viability, reduced tumour mass in animal models and stem-cell proliferation. Many researchers are currently focusing on its application to internal structures and the use of plasma-activated liquids in tolerated and effective human treatment. There has also been analysis of plasma's beneficial synergy with standard pharmaceuticals to enhance their effect. Cold atmospheric plasma triggers various responses in tumour cells, and this can result in epigenetic changes in both DNA methylation levels and histone modification. The expression and activity of non-coding RNAs with their many important cell regulatory functions can also be altered by cold atmospheric plasma action. Finally, there is ongoing debate whether plasma-produced radicals can directly affect DNA damage in the nucleus or only initiate apoptosis or other forms of cell death. This article therefore summarises accepted knowledge of cold atmospheric plasma's influence on epigenetic changes, the expression and activity of non-coding RNAs, and DNA damage and its effect in synergistic treatment with routinely used pharmaceuticals.

Comparative Proteomic and Metabolomic Analysis of Human Osteoblasts, Differentiated from Dental Pulp Stem Cells, Hinted Crucial Signaling Pathways Promoting Osteogenesis.

Population aging has been a global trend for the last decades, which increases the pressure to develop new cell-based or drug-based therapies, including those that may cure bone diseases. To understand molecular processes that underlie bone development and turnover, we followed osteogenic differentiation of human dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) using a specific induction medium. The differentiation process imitating in vivo osteogenesis is triggered by various signaling pathways and is associated with massive proteome and metabolome changes. Proteome was profiled by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography and comprehensively quantified by ion mobility-enhanced mass spectrometry. From 2667 reproducibly quantified and identified proteins, 432 were differentially abundant by strict statistic criteria. Metabolome profiling was carried out by nuclear magnetic resonance. From 27 detected metabolites, 8 were differentially accumulated. KEGG and MetaboAnalyst hinted metabolic pathways that may be involved in the osteogenic process. Enrichment analysis of differentially abundant proteins highlighted PPAR, FoxO, JAK-STAT, IL-17 signaling pathways, biosynthesis of thyroid hormones and steroids, mineral absorption, and fatty acid metabolism as processes with prominent impact on osteoinduction. In parallel, metabolomic data showed that aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, as well as specific amino acids, likely promote osteodifferentiation. Targeted immunoassays validated and complemented omic results. Our data underlined the complexity of the osteogenic mechanism. Finally, we proposed promising targets for future validation in patient samples, a step toward the treatment of bone defects.

Short-Term versus Long-Term Culture of A549 Cells for Evaluating the Effects of Lipopolysaccharide on Oxidative Stress, Surfactant Proteins and Cathelicidin LL-37.

Alveolar epithelial type II (ATII) cells and their proper function are essential for maintaining lung integrity and homeostasis. However, they can be damaged by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) during Gram-negative bacterial infection. Thus, this study evaluated and compared the effects of LPS on short and long-term cultures of A549 cells by determining the cell viability, levels of oxidative stress and antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin LL-37 and changes in the expression of surfactant proteins (SPs). Moreover, we compared A549 cell response to LPS in the presence of different serum concentrations. Additionally, the effect of N-acetylcysteine (NAC) on LPS-induced oxidative stress as a possible treatment was determined. Our results indicate that A549 cells are relatively resistant to LPS and able to maintain integrity even at high LPS concentrations. Their response to endotoxin is partially dependent on serum concentration. NAC failed to lower LPS-induced oxidative stress in A549 cells. Finally, LPS modulates SP gene expression in A549 cells in a time dependent manner and differences between short and long-term cultures were present. Our results support the idea that long-term cultivation of A549 cells could promote a more ATII-like phenotype and thus could be a more suitable model for ATII cells, especially for in vitro studies dealing with surfactant production.

Induced Pluripotency: A Powerful Tool for In Vitro Modeling.

One of the greatest breakthroughs of regenerative medicine in this century was the discovery of induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) technology in 2006 by Shinya Yamanaka. iPSCs originate from terminally differentiated somatic cells that have newly acquired the developmental capacity of self-renewal and differentiation into any cells of three germ layers. Before iPSCs can be used routinely in clinical practice, their efficacy and safety need to be rigorously tested; however, iPSCs have already become effective and fully-fledged tools for application under in vitro conditions. They are currently routinely used for disease modeling, preparation of difficult-to-access cell lines, monitoring of cellular mechanisms in micro- or macroscopic scales, drug testing and screening, genetic engineering, and many other applications. This review is a brief summary of the reprogramming process and subsequent differentiation and culture of reprogrammed cells into neural precursor cells (NPCs) in two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) conditions. NPCs can be used as biomedical models for neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), which are currently considered to be one of the major health problems in the human population.

A Comparative In Vitro Analysis of the Osteogenic Potential of Human Dental Pulp Stem Cells Using Various Differentiation Conditions.

Dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) have excellent proliferative properties, mineralization potential and can be easily obtained from third molar teeth. Recently, many studies have focused on isolation and differentiation of DPSCs. In our study, we focused on biological properties of non-differentiated DPSCs in comparison with osteogenic differentiated cells from DPSCs. We analyzed morphology as well as mineralization potential using three varied osteogenic differentiation media. After fifteen days of differentiation, calcium deposit production was observed in all three osteogenic differentiation media. However, only one osteogenic medium, without animal serum supplement, showed rapid and strong calcification-OsteoMAX-XF™ Differentiation Medium. Therefore, we examined specific surface markers, and gene and protein expression of cells differentiated in this osteogenic medium, and compared them to non-differentiated DPSCs. We proved a decrease in expression of CD9 and CD90 mesenchymal stem cell surface markers, as well as downregulation in the expression of pluripotency genes (NANOG and OCT-4) and increased levels of expression in osteogenic genes (ALP, BSP, OCN and RUNX2). Moreover, osteogenic proteins, such as BSP and OCN, were only produced in differentiated cells. Our findings confirm that carefully selected differentiation conditions for stem cells are essential for their translation into future clinical applications.

ADAMTS-1 disrupts HGF/c-MET signaling and HGF-stimulated cellular processes in fibrosarcoma.

Extracellular matrix (ECM) serves as a reservoir for biologically active factors, such as growth factors and proteases that influence the tumor cell behavior. ADAMTS-1 (a disintegrin and metalloprotease with thrombospondin motifs) is a secreted protease that has the ability to modify the ECM during physiological and pathological processes. Here, we analyzed the role played by ADAMTS-1 regulating HGF and TGF-ß1 activities in the high-grade fibrosarcoma cell line (HT1080). We generated HT1080 and HEK293T cells overexpressing ADAMTS-1. HT1080 cells overexpressing ADAMTS-1 (HT1080-MPA) exhibited a significant decrease in cell proliferation and migration velocity, both in presence of HGF. We obtained similar results with ADAMTS-1-enriched conditioned medium from other cell type. However, ADAMTS-1 overexpression failed to affect TGF-ß1 activity associated with HT1080 cell proliferation and migration velocity. Immunoblotting showed that ADAMTS-1 overexpression disturbs c-Met activation upon HGF stimulation. Downstream ERK1/2 and FAK signaling pathways are also influenced by this protease. Additionally, ADAMTS-1 decreased the size of the fibrosarcospheres, both under normal conditions and in the presence of HGF. Likewise, in presence of HGF, ADAMTS-1 overexpression in HT1080 disrupted microtumors formation in vivo. These microtumors, including individual cells, presented characteristics of non-invasive lesions (rounded morphology). Our results suggest that ADAMTS-1 is involved in regulating HGF-related functions on fibrosarcoma cells. This protease may then represent an endogenous mechanism in controlling the bioavailability of different growth factors that have a direct influence on tumor cell behavior.

Proteomic analysis reveals a role for Bcl2-associated athanogene 3 and major vault protein in resistance to apoptosis in senescent cells by regulating ERK1/2 activation.

Senescence is a prominent solid tumor response to therapy in which cells avoid apoptosis and instead enter into prolonged cell cycle arrest. We applied a quantitative proteomics screen to identify signals that lead to therapy-induced senescence and discovered that Bcl2-associated athanogene 3 (Bag3) is up-regulated after adriamycin treatment in MCF7 cells. Bag3 is a member of the BAG family of co-chaperones that interacts with Hsp70. Bag3 also regulates major cell-signaling pathways. Mass spectrometry analysis of the Bag3 Complex revealed a novel interaction between Bag3 and Major Vault Protein (MVP). Silencing of Bag3 or MVP shifts the cellular response to adriamycin to favor apoptosis. We demonstrate that Bag3 and MVP contribute to apoptosis resistance in therapy-induced senescence by increasing the level of activation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase1/2 (ERK1/2). Silencing of either Bag3 or MVP decreased ERK1/2 activation and promoted apoptosis in adriamycin-treated cells. An increase in nuclear accumulation of MVP is observed during therapy-induced senescence and the shift in MVP subcellular localization is Bag3-dependent. We propose a model in which Bag3 binds to MVP and facilitates MVP accumulation in the nucleus, which sustains ERK1/2 activation. We confirmed that silencing of Bag3 or MVP shifts the response toward apoptosis and regulates ERK1/2 activation in a panel of diverse breast cancer cell lines. This study highlights Bag3-MVP as an important complex that regulates a potent prosurvival signaling pathway and contributes to chemotherapy resistance in breast cancer.

The role of statins as therapeutic agents in cancer.

Statins are the inhibitors of 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase. This enzyme catalyzes conversion of HMG-CoA to mevalonate, which are the intermediates in cholesterol biosynthetic pathway. Statins also play an important role in carcinogenesis, because they are able to affect the cancer cell metabolism. Their effect has been observed in several cellular processes, such as angiogenesis, metastasis, apoptosis and cell proliferation. However, these effects are highly dependent on type of cancer and individual statins vary in their antitumor potential. This review summarizes the recent epidemiological evidence and preclinical studies that showed effects of all clinically used statins in vitro and in vivo. We also consider the results of different observational and retrospective studies focused on association among statins and cancer risk which are still under open discussion.

Eukaryotic Translation Initiation Factor 5A (EIF5A) Regulates Pancreatic Cancer Metastasis by Modulating RhoA and Rho-associated Kinase (ROCK) Protein Expression Levels.

Pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) is one of the deadliest cancers with an overall survival rate of less than 5%. The poor patient outcome in PDAC is largely due to the high prevalence of systemic metastasis at the time of diagnosis and lack of effective therapeutics that target disseminated cells. The fact that the underlying mechanisms driving PDAC cell migration and dissemination are poorly understood have hindered drug development and compounded the lack of clinical success in this disease. Recent evidence indicates that mutational activation of K-Ras up-regulates eIF5A, a component of the cellular translational machinery that is critical for PDAC progression. However, the role of eIF5A in PDAC cell migration and metastasis has not been investigated. We report here that pharmacological inhibition or genetic knockdown of eIF5A reduces PDAC cell migration, invasion, and metastasis in vitro and in vivo. Proteomic profiling and bioinformatic analyses revealed that eIF5A controls an integrated network of cytoskeleton-regulatory proteins involved in cell migration. Functional interrogation of this network uncovered a critical RhoA/ROCK signaling node that operates downstream of eIF5A in invasive PDAC cells. Importantly, eIF5A mediates PDAC cell migration and invasion by modulating RhoA/ROCK protein expression levels. Together our findings implicate eIF5A as a cytoskeletal rheostat controlling RhoA/ROCK protein expression during PDAC cell migration and metastasis. Our findings also implicate the eIF5A/RhoA/ROCK module as a potential new therapeutic target to treat metastatic PDAC cells.

Role of connexins in metastatic breast cancer and melanoma brain colonization.

Breast cancer and melanoma cells commonly metastasize to the brain using homing mechanisms that are poorly understood. Cancer patients with brain metastases display poor prognosis and survival due to the lack of effective therapeutics and treatment strategies. Recent work using intravital microscopy and preclinical animal models indicates that metastatic cells colonize the brain, specifically in close contact with the existing brain vasculature. However, it is not known how contact with the vascular niche promotes microtumor formation. Here, we investigate the role of connexins in mediating early events in brain colonization using transparent zebrafish and chicken embryo models of brain metastasis. We provide evidence that breast cancer and melanoma cells utilize connexin gap junction proteins (Cx43, Cx26) to initiate brain metastatic lesion formation in association with the vasculature. RNAi depletion of connexins or pharmacological blocking of connexin-mediated cell-cell communication with carbenoxolone inhibited brain colonization by blocking tumor cell extravasation and blood vessel co-option. Activation of the metastatic gene twist in breast cancer cells increased Cx43 protein expression and gap junction communication, leading to increased extravasation, blood vessel co-option and brain colonization. Conversely, inhibiting twist activity reduced Cx43-mediated gap junction coupling and brain colonization. Database analyses of patient histories revealed increased expression of Cx26 and Cx43 in primary melanoma and breast cancer tumors, respectively, which correlated with increased cancer recurrence and metastasis. Together, our data indicate that Cx43 and Cx26 mediate cancer cell metastasis to the brain and suggest that connexins might be exploited therapeutically to benefit cancer patients with metastatic disease.

Procedures for the biochemical enrichment and proteomic analysis of the cytoskeletome.

The cell cytoskeleton is composed of microtubules, intermediate filaments, and actin that provide a rigid support structure important for cell shape. However, it is also a dynamic signaling scaffold that receives and transmits complex mechanosensing stimuli that regulate normal physiological and aberrant pathophysiological processes. Studying cytoskeletal functions in the cytoskeleton's native state is inherently difficult due to its rigid and insoluble nature. This has severely limited detailed proteomic analyses of the complex protein networks that regulate the cytoskeleton. Here, we describe a purification method that enriches for the cytoskeleton and its associated proteins in their native state that is also compatible with current mass spectrometry-based protein detection methods. This method can be used for biochemical, fluorescence, and large-scale proteomic analyses of numerous cell types. Using this approach, 2346 proteins were identified in the cytoskeletal fraction of purified mouse embryonic fibroblasts, of which 635 proteins were either known cytoskeleton proteins or cytoskeleton-interacting proteins. Functional annotation and network analyses using the Ingenuity Knowledge Database of the cytoskeletome revealed important nodes of interconnectivity surrounding well-established regulators of the actin cytoskeleton and focal adhesion complexes. This improved cytoskeleton purification method will aid our understanding of how the cytoskeleton controls normal and diseased cell functions.

Comparison of Various Extraction Approaches for Optimized Preparation of Intracellular Metabolites from Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells and Fibroblasts for NMR-Based Study.

Metabolomics has proven to be a sensitive tool for monitoring biochemical processes in cell culture. It enables multi-analysis, clarifying the correlation between numerous metabolic pathways. Together with other analysis, it thus provides a global view of a cell's physiological state. A comprehensive analysis of molecular changes is also required in the case of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), which currently represent an essential portion of cells used in regenerative medicine. Reproducibility and correct measurement are closely connected to careful metabolite extraction, and sample preparation is always a critical point. Our study aimed to compare the efficiencies of four harvesting and six extraction methods. Several organic reagents (methanol, ethanol, acetonitrile, methanol-chloroform, MTBE) and harvesting approaches (trypsinization vs. scraping) were tested. We used untargeted nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) to determine the most efficient method for the extraction of metabolites from human adherent cells, specifically human dermal fibroblasts adult (HDFa) and dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs). A comprehensive dataset of 29 identified and quantified metabolites were determined to possess statistically significant differences in the abundances of several metabolites when the cells were detached mechanically to organic solvent compared to when applying enzymes mainly in the classes of amino acids and peptides for both types of cells. Direct scraping to organic solvent is a method that yields higher abundances of determined metabolites. Extraction with the use of different polar reagents, 50% and 80% methanol, or acetonitrile, mostly showed the same quality. For both HDFa and DPSC cells, the MTBE method, methanol-chloroform, and 80% ethanol extractions showed higher extraction efficiency for the most identified and quantified metabolites Thus, preparation procedures provided a cell sample processing protocol that focuses on maximizing extraction yield. Our approach may be useful for large-scale comparative metabolomic studies of human mesenchymal stem cell samples.

Comparison of pulsed and continuous electromagnetic field generated by WPT system on human dermal and neural cells.

In recent decades, we have seen significant technical progress in the modern world, leading to the widespread use of telecommunications systems, electrical appliances, and wireless technologies. These devices generate electromagnetic radiation (EMR) and electromagnetic fields (EMF) most often in the extremely low frequency or radio-frequency range. Therefore, they were included in the group of environmental risk factors that affect the human body and health on a daily basis. In this study, we tested the effect of exposure EMF generated by a new prototype wireless charging system on four human cell lines (normal cell lines-HDFa, NHA; tumor cell lines-SH-SY5Y, T98G). We tested different operating parameters of the wireless power transfer (WPT) device (87-207 kHz, 1.01-1.05 kW, 1.3-1.7 mT) at different exposure times (pulsed 6 × 10 min; continuous 1 × 60 min). We observed the effect of EMF on cell morphology and cytoskeletal changes, cell viability and mitotic activity, cytotoxicity, genotoxicity, and oxidative stress. The results of our study did not show any negative effect of the generated EMF on either normal cells or tumor cell lines. However, in order to be able to estimate the risk, further population and epidemiological studies are needed, which would reveal the clinical consequences of EMF impact.

Small-scale variants and large deletions in BRCA1/2 genes in Slovak high-grade serous ovarian cancer.

The role of PARP inhibitors is to prevent the polymerase from repairing the single-strand break that occurred due to tumor growth and thus induce cell apoptosis when the homologous recombination deficiency (HRD) system is disabled. The eliminated system can be monitored especially in patients with serous ovarian epithelial tumors. Current studies still show the highest progression-free survival (PFS) in the examined groups with BRCA mutant status, even though they are also effective in the case of a disrupted HRD system, apart from BRCA genes. The study cohort consists of women diagnosed with high-grade serous ovarian cancer (HGSOC), after at least two lines of chemotherapy and after relapse of the disease, as determined by ESMO standards and guidelines. The commercially available tool SOPHIA DDM™ (SophiaGenetics, Switzerland) was used to classify the variants after sequencing. The most common variants (pathogenic or likely pathogenic) were in BRCA1 c.1067 A>G (rs1799950) and c.5266dupC (rs80357906) and in BRCA2 c.9976 A>T (rs11571833). Large deletions were detected in one and three cases in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, respectively. A mutation in the BRCA1/2 genes was confirmed in 50% of the examined patients. In the study, we focused on the identification of mutated BRCA genes by a commercially available Sophia DDM™ system to identify a pathogenic or probable pathogenic variant in a cohort of patients with HGSOC in the Slovak population, which could result in better management and stratification of the individual.

Modelling Duchenne muscular dystrophy in vitro with newly generated, blood cell-derived induced pluripotent stem cell line ORIONi003-A.

Here, we present newly derived in vitro model for modeling Duchenne muscular dystrophy. Our new cell line was derived by reprogramming of peripheral blood mononuclear cells (isolated from blood from pediatric patient) with Sendai virus encoding Yamanaka factors. Derived iPS cells are capable to differentiate in vitro into three germ layers as verified by immunocytochemistry. When differentiated in special medium, our iPSc formed spontaneously beating cardiomyocytes. As cardiomyopathy is the main clinical complication in patients with Duchenne muscular dystrophy, the cell line bearing the dystrophin gene mutation might be of interest to the research community.

Cancer stem cell marker expression and methylation status in patients with colorectal cancer.

The number of individuals diagnosed with colorectal cancer (CRC) has been on an alarming upward trajectory over the past decade. In some countries, this cancer represents one of the most frequently diagnosed types of neoplasia. Therefore, it is an important demand to study the pathology underlying this disease to gain insights into the mechanism of resistance to treatment. Resistance of tumors to chemotherapy and tumor aggressiveness have been associated with a minor population of neoplastic cells, which are considered to be responsible for tumor recurrence. These types of neoplastic cells are known as cancer stem cells, which have been previously reported to serve an important role in pathogenesis of this malignant disease. Slovakia has one of the highest incidence rates of CRC worldwide. In the present study, the aim was to classify the abundance of selected stem cell markers (CD133, CD166 and Lgr5) in CRC tumors using flow cytometry. In addition, the methylation status of selected genomic regions of CRC biomarkers (ADAMTS16, MGMT, PROM1 (CD133), LGR5 and ALCAM) was investigated by pyrosequencing in a cohort of patients from Martin University Hospital, Martin, Slovakia. Samples from both primary tumors and metastatic tumors were tested. Analysis of DNA methylation in the genomic regions of indicated five CRC biomarkers was also performed, which revealed the highest levels of methylation in the A disintegrin and metalloproteinase with thrombospondin motifs 16 and O6-methyguanine-DNA methyl transferase genes, whereas the lowest levels of methylation were found in genes expressing prominin-1, leucine-rich repeat-containing G-protein-coupled receptor 5 and activated leukocyte cell adhesion molecule. Furthermore, tumor tissues from metastases showed significantly higher levels of CD133+ cells compared with that in primary tumors. Higher levels of CD133+ cells correlated with TNM stage and the invasiveness of CRC into the lymphatic system. Although relatively small number of samples was processed, CD133 marker was consider to be important marker in pathology of CRC.

In vitro modeling of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis with induced pluripotent stem cell technology-derived cell line ORIONi002-A.

We present here a new iPS cell line for modeling sporadic form of ALS. Cell line was generated by reprogramming skin fibroblasts isolated with explant culture technology from skin biopsy, donated by ALS patient. For reprogramming, polycistronic self-replicating RNA vector was used and derived iPS cells were characterized by immunocytochemistry and FACS (pluripotent factors expression), karyotyping, STR fingerprinting analysis and in vitro differentiation assay. New cell line showed normal (46, XY) karyotype and differentiated in vitro into cells from three germ layers. STR analysis proved the origin and originality of the cell line.

Tissue distribution of ethanol after intraprostatic injection using a porous needle.

Purpose: To develop a safe and precise method for intraprostatic injection, and to establish correlation between the volume of ethanol injectate and the volume of subsequent infiltrated prostate tissue. Materials and methods: We performed intraprostatic injection of 96% ethanol using a needle which has a segment of its wall made of capillary membrane with hundreds of pores in an acute and chronic canine experiment, in heart-beating cadaveric organ donors, and in a xenograft model of human prostate cancer. Whole mount tissue sections were used for three-dimensional reconstruction of the necrotic lesions and calculation of their volumes. Results: The ethanol injection resulted in oval shaped lesions of well-delineated coagulative necrosis. In both healthy human and canine prostates, the prostatic pseudocapsule and neurovascular bundle remained intact without evidence of disruption. There was a linear correlation between administered volume of ethanol and the volume of necrotic lesion. Regression analysis showed strong correlation in the acute canine experiments and in experiments performed on xenografts of human prostate cancer. A formula was calculated for each experiment to estimate the relationship between the injected volume and the volume of infiltrated prostate tissue area. Conclusions: Intraprostatic injection using a porous needle allows for effective and predictable tissue distribution of the injectate in the prostate. Through varying the volume of the agent injected and use of needles with a different length of the porous segment, the volume of infiltrated tissue could be adjusted allowing for targeted focal treatment.

Genomic profile and immune contexture in colorectal cancer-relevance for prognosis and immunotherapy.

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the leading cancers in both genders. TNM staging system is still the most commonly used tumor classification and prognostic system. The disadvantage of TNM is that the prognostic information it provides is incomplete, and patients with the same histological tumor stages may differ significantly in the clinical outcome. Therefore, the identification of new prognostic parameters is crucial. The carcinogenic process that gives rise to an individual tumor is unique and tumor microenviroment should be taken into consideration. In CRC, T-cell infiltration is not homogenous, and recent studies are mostly focusing on memory T-cells and CD8 cells in predicting disease-free survival (DFS) and overall survival (OS). It seems that DFS and OS are not only dependent on microsatellite instable or stable status but mostly on the levels of expression of the immune signatures. Also, patients with high infiltration of cytotoxic and memory cells have significantly better outcome. This review consolidates current knowledge and recent research about importance of immune-cell-associated proteins, specific gene profiles of immune cells and immunotherapy in CRC. We also discussed cell-specific signatures in cancer treatment.