Possible involvement of DExD/H box helicase 60 in synovial inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis: role of toll-like receptor 3 signaling.

BACKGROUND: Innate immunity is known to be implicated in the etiology of synovitis in rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, details of the molecular mechanisms have not been fully clarified. DExD/H-box helicase 60 (DDX60), a putative RNA helicase, is of consequence in anti-viral innate immune reactions followed by inflammation. Although DDX60 is involved in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus nephritis, the role of DDX60 in RA has not been elucidated. The objective of this study was to examine the expression and the role of DDX60 in RA synovial inflammation. METHODS AND RESULTS: DDX60 protein expression was investigated by immunohistochemistry in synovial tissues resected from 4 RA and 4 osteoarthritis (OA) patients. We found that synovial DDX60 expression was more intense in RA than in OA. Treatment of human rheumatoid fibroblast-like synoviocytes in culture with polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid, a Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) ligand, increased DDX60 protein and mRNA expression. A knockdown experiment of DDX60 using RNA interference revealed a decrease in the expression of poly IC-induced C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) which induces lymphocyte chemotaxis. CONCLUSIONS: The synovial DDX60 was more expressed in RA patients than in OA. In human RFLS, DDX60 stimulated by TLR3 signaling affected CXCL10 expression. DDX60 may contribute to synovial inflammation in RA.

TMEM2 suppresses TLR3-mediated IFN-ß/ISG56/CXCL10 expression in BEAS-2B bronchial epithelial cells.

BACKGROUND: Bronchial epithelial cells are at the front line of viral infections. Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) cascade causes the expression of interferon (IFN)-ß and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs), which in turn induce an antiviral response. Members of the transmembrane protein (TMEM) family are expressed in various cell types. Although the prognostic value of TMEM2 in various cancers has been reported, its association with infectious diseases remains unknown. In this study, we investigated the effects of TMEM2 on antiviral immunity in BEAS-2B bronchial epithelial cells. METHODS AND RESULTS: TMEM2 protein was found in the cytoplasm of normal human bronchial epithelial cells and differed between organs using immunohistochemistry. Cultured BEAS-2B cells were transfected with TMEM2 siRNA, followed by administration of TLR3 ligand polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly IC) or recombinant human (r(h)) IFN-ß. The expression of TMEM2, IFN-ß, ISG56, C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) and hyaluronan were evaluated appropriately by western blotting, quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. TMEM2 expression was not altered by poly IC stimulation. Knockdown of TMEM2 increased poly IC-induced expression of IFN-ß, CXCL10, and ISG56, while IFN-ß-induced expression of ISG56 and CXCL10 were not changed by TMEM2 knockdown. The hyaluronan concentration in the medium was decreased by either TMEM2 knockdown or poly IC, but additive or synergistic effects were not observed. CONCLUSIONS: TMEM2 knockdown enhanced TLR3-mediated IFN-ß, CXCL10, and ISG56 expression in BEAS-2B cells. This implies that TMEM2 suppresses antiviral immune responses and prevents tissue injury in bronchial epithelial cells.

Interferon-stimulated gene 56 positively regulates Toll-like receptor 3-mediated CXCL10 expression in human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells.

Viral infections in tubular epithelial cells lead to the production of inflammatory cytokines by innate immunity, causing tubulointerstitial nephritis. TLR3 recognizes viral infections and acts via the activation of interferon (IFN)/IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). This study investigates the role of ISG56, a representative ISG, in TLR3 signaling in cultured human renal proximal tubular epithelial cells (hRPTECs). To this end, hRPTECs were stimulated by a synthetic TLR3 ligand, polyinosinic-polycytidylic acid (poly IC), recombinant human interferon-ß [r(h)IFN-ß] or Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV) infection and assayed for inflammatory cytokine mRNA expression by RT-qPCR, and protein expression via western blotting or ELISA. ISG56 was expressed by poly IC or r(h)IFN-ß and IFN-ß knockdown reduced poly IC-induced expression of ISG56 and CXCL10. Moreover, ISG56 knockdown reduced poly IC- or r(h)IFN-ß-induced expression of CXCL10 at the same time as increasing JEV growth and reducing CXCL10 expression induced by JEV infection. Overall, TLR3 signaling induced IFN-ß-dependent expression of ISG56 and CXCL10. We show that ISG56 possibly plays a critical role in antiviral immunity of hRPTECs by positive regulation of IFN-ß-mediated CXCL10 expression downstream of TLR3.

Expression of ISG60 is induced by TLR3 signaling in BEAS­2B bronchial epithelial cells: Possible involvement in CXCL10 expression.

Viral infections in the respiratory tract are common, and, in recent years, severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 outbreaks have highlighted the effect of viral infections on antiviral innate immune and inflammatory reactions. Specific treatments for numerous viral respiratory infections have not yet been established and they are mainly treated symptomatically. Therefore, understanding the details of the innate immune system underlying the airway epithelium is crucial for the development of new therapies. The present study aimed to investigate the function and expression of interferon (IFN)­stimulated gene (ISG)60 in non­cancerous bronchial epithelial BEAS­2B cells exposed to a Toll­like receptor 3 agonist. BEAS­2B cells were treated with a synthetic TLR3 ligand, polyinosinic­polycytidylic acid (poly IC). The mRNA and protein expression levels of ISG60 were analyzed using reverse transcription­quantitative PCR and western blotting, respectively. The levels of C­X­C motif chemokine ligand 10 (CXCL10) were examined using an enzyme­linked immunosorbent assay, and the effects of knockdown of IFN­ß, ISG60 and ISG56 were examined using specific small interfering RNAs. Notably, ISG60 expression was increased in proportion to poly IC concentration, and recombinant human IFN­ß also induced ISG60 expression. By contrast, knockdown of IFN­ß and ISG56 decreased ISG60 expression, and ISG60 knockdown reduced CXCL10 and ISG56 expression. These findings suggested that ISG60 is partly implicated in CXCL10 expression and that ISG60 may serve a role in the innate immune response of bronchial epithelial cells. The present study highlights ISG60 as a potential target for new therapeutic strategies against viral infections in the airway.

Resiquimod Induces C-C Motif Chemokine Ligand 2 Via Nuclear Factor-Kappa B in SH-SY5Y Human Neuroblastoma Cells.

Toll-like receptor (TLR) 7 plays an important role in recognizing virus-derived nucleic acids. TLR7 signaling in astrocytes and microglia is critical for activating immune responses against neurotrophic viruses. Neurons express TLR7, similar to glial cells; however, the role of neuronal TLR7 has not yet been fully elucidated. This study sought to determine whether resiquimod, the TLR7/8 agonist, induces the expression of inflammatory chemokines in SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cells. Immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that TLR7 was constitutively expressed in SH-SY5Y cells. Stimulation with resiquimod induced C-C motif chemokine ligand 2 (CCL2) expression, accompanied by the activation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) in SH-SY5Y cells. Resiquimod increased mRNA levels of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 8 (CXCL8) and CXCL10, while the increase was slight at the protein level. Knockdown of NF-κB p65 eliminated resiquimod-induced CCL2 production. This study provides novel evidence that resiquimod has promising therapeutic potential against central nervous system viral infections through its immunostimulatory effects on neurons.