Oral Language Performance of Deaf and Hard-of-Hearing Students in Mainstream Schools.

In Hong Kong, students are expected to speak fluent Cantonese, Putonghua, and English. However, the curriculum does not include Cantonese studies, as children are expected to have already acquired Cantonese by the age of school entry. This study examined the language outcomes of Cantonese-speaking deaf or hard-of-hearing children who attend primary schools within the Hong Kong educational system and considered whether the system currently meets the needs of these children. The Hong Kong Cantonese Oral Language Assessment Scale, which comprises six subtests, was used to assess 98 children with mild to profound hearing loss. A regression analysis was used to examine the influences of various variables on oral language performance in these children. Notably, 41% of the participants had achieved age-appropriate oral language skills, while 18% and 41% exhibited mild-to-moderate or severe oral language impairment, respectively. The degree of hearing loss and the use of speech therapy were identified as significant negative predictors of oral language performance. The issues of a relatively late diagnosis and device fitting, as well as the very poor oral language outcomes, strongly emphasize the need for policy makers to reconsider the existing educational approaches and support for deaf or hard-of-hearing children.

The development of discourse referencing in Cantonese of deaf/hard-of-hearing children.

This paper investigates the development of discourse referencing in spoken Cantonese of fifteen deaf/hard-of-hearing children studying in a sign bilingual and co-enrollment education programme in a mainstream setting in Hong Kong. A comparison of their elicited narratives with those of the hearing children and adults shows that, despite a delay in acquiring the grammatical markings for (in)definiteness in Cantonese, these d/hh children show sensitivity towards the referential properties of different types of nominal expressions and their corresponding mappings with discourse functions. Specifically, they produced more bare nouns across all discourse contexts but fewer existential constructions, pronouns, demonstratives, and classifier-related constructions. Their choice of nominal expressions and the observed errors show striking similarities to the productions by the younger hearing children in this study, suggesting that the d/hh children's route of development of discourse referencing is likely to be similar to that of hearing children despite a slower rate of development.

Chinese Grammatical Development of Deaf and Hard of Hearing Children in a Sign Bilingualism and Coenrollment Program.

The literacy development of d/Deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) children has always been a matter of grave concern among educators, and grammatical knowledge is said to constitute a major component such development. The present article reports on a study that examined the development of Chinese grammar among groups of d/Dhh and hearing children who received education through a sign bilingualism and coenrollment (SLCO) approach. Findings from administration of a prestandardized assessment tool showed that while the d/Dhh children generally lagged behind their hearing peers at all levels, the gap began to narrow from Primary 2 onward, and they caught up with their hearing peers in most except for a few grammatical constructions by Primary 4. Qualitative analysis revealed a similar developmental profile and similar degrees of difficulty in mastering the more complex constructions in written Chinese between the two groups of children.

Literacy Learning of Deaf and Hearing Preschoolers in a Sign Bilingual, Coenrollment Setting in Hong Kong.

The study investigated the literacy-learning conditions of a group of deaf and hard of hearing (d/Dhh) and hearing preschoolers in a mainstream kindergarten sign bilingualism and coenrollment (SLCO) program. The data came from the children's scores on tests of Chinese vocabulary and written Chinese grammar, and questionnaire responses on literacy-learning conditions at home (from parents) and in school (from teachers). The d/Dhh children's performance on the two tests, when compared with that of their hearing peers, suggested that adding sign language and Deaf teachers to the SLCO classroom did not adversely affect the d/Dhh children's literacy learning. Responses to the two questionnaires indicated that parents' and teachers' efforts to organize literacy resources and activities interacted with the children's vocabulary development. These preliminary results encourage more research to elucidate further the relationship between environmental factors and d/Dhh children's literacy development.

Sign phonological parameters modulate parafoveal preview effects in deaf readers.

Research has found that deaf readers unconsciously activate sign translations of written words while reading. However, the ways in which different sign phonological parameters associated with these sign translations tie into reading processes have received little attention in the literature. In this study on Chinese reading, we used a parafoveal preview paradigm to investigate how four different types of sign phonologically related preview affect reading processes in adult deaf signers of Hong Kong Sign Language (HKSL). The four types of sign phonologically related preview-target pair were: (1) pairs with HKSL translations that overlapped in three parameters-handshape, location, and movement; (2) pairs that overlapped in only handshape and location; (3) pairs that only overlapped in handshape and movement; and (4) pairs that only overlapped in location and movement. Results showed that the handshape parameter was of particular importance as only sign translation pairs that had handshape among their overlapping sign phonological parameters led to early sign activation. Furthermore, we found that, compared to control previews, deaf readers took longer to read targets when the sign translation previews overlapped with targets in either handshape and movement or handshape, movement, and location. In contrast, fixation times on targets were shorter when previews and targets overlapped location and any single additional parameter-either handshape or movement. These results indicate that the phonological parameters of handshape, location, and movement are activated via orthography during Chinese reading and can have different effects on parafoveal processing in deaf signers of HKSL.

Orthographic and phonological activation in Hong Kong deaf readers: An eye-tracking study.

We used an error disruption paradigm to investigate how deaf readers from Hong Kong, who had varying levels of reading fluency, use orthographic, phonological, and mouth-shape-based (i.e., "visemic") codes during Chinese sentence reading while also examining the role of contextual information in facilitating lexical retrieval and integration. Participants had their eye movements recorded as they silently read Chinese sentences containing orthographic, homophonic, homovisemic, or unrelated errors. Sentences varied in terms of how much contextual information was available leading up to the target word. Fixation time analyses revealed that in early fixation measures, deaf readers activated word meanings primarily through orthographic representations. However, in contexts where targets were highly predictable, fixation times on homophonic errors decreased relative to those on unrelated errors, suggesting that higher levels of contextual predictability facilitated early phonological activation. In the measure of total reading time, results indicated that deaf readers activated word meanings primarily through orthographic representations, but they also appeared to activate word meanings through visemic representations in late error recovery processes. Examining the influence of reading fluency level on error recovery processes, we found that, in comparison to deaf readers with lower reading fluency levels, those with higher reading fluency levels could more quickly resolve homophonic and orthographic errors in the measures of gaze duration and total reading time, respectively. We conclude with a discussion of the theoretical implications of these findings as they relate to the lexical quality hypothesis and the dual-route cascaded model of reading by deaf adults.

Acquisition of Classifier Constructions in HKSL by Bimodal Bilingual Deaf Children of Hearing Parents.

The current study focuses on the acquisition of classifier constructions in Hong Kong Sign Language (HKSL) by a group of Deaf children of hearing parents, aided or implanted. These children have been mainstreamed together since kindergarten; but their learning environment supports dual language input in Cantonese and HKSL on a daily basis. Classifier constructions were chosen because previous research suggested full mastery at a late age when compared with other verb types, due to their morphosyntactic complexity. Also, crosslinguistic comparison between HKSL and Cantonese reveals differences in verb morphology as well as word order of the structures under investigation. We predicted that verb root and word order were the two domains for crosslingusitic interaction to occur. At the general level, given the specific learning environment and dual input condition, we examined if these Deaf child learners could ultimately acquire classifier constructions. Fifteen Deaf children divided into four groups based on duration of exposure to HKSL participated in the study. Two Deaf children born to Deaf parents and three native HKSL signers served as controls. A picture description task was designed to elicit classifier constructions containing either a transitive, a locative existential or a motion directional predicate. The findings revealed Deaf children's gradual convergence on the adult grammar despite late exposure to HKSL. Evidence of crosslinguistic influence on word order came from the Deaf children's initial adoption of a Cantonese structure for locative existential and motion directional predicates. There was also a prolonged period of adherence to the SVO order across all grades. However, within this SVO structure, the verb revealed increasing morphological complexity as a function of longer duration of exposure. We interpreted the findings using Language Synthesis, arguing that it was the selection of morphosyntactic features in Numeration that triggered crosslinguistic interaction between Cantonese and HKSL with bimodal bilinguals.

Corrigendum: Acquisition of Classifier Constructions in HKSL by Bimodal Bilingual Deaf Children of Hearing Parents.

[This corrects the article DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01148.].