The Longitudinal Association between Perceived Powerlessness and Sexual Risk Behaviors among Urban Youth: Mediating and Moderating Effects.

A distal psychosocial factor, perceived powerlessness, has been found to predict various sexual risk behaviors among youth, yet no studies have assessed mediators or moderators in this relationship. Using a demographically diverse, longitudinal sample of urban youth (N = 257), this study assessed whether the need for sexual validation mediates the relationship between perceived powerlessness and sexual risk behaviors and to assess whether this mediated pathway is moderated by socioeconomic status and gender. The mean age of the participants was 21 years old (range: 15-24) and the majority of the sample identified as Black (65%) and female (62%). The results of structural equation modeling showed that the need for sexual validation mediated perceived powerlessness and condomless sex at last sex among Black youth. The need for sexual validation mediated perceived powerlessness and concurrent sexual partnerships among White youth and depended on levels of socioeconomic status. Sexual risk behavior interventions should provide youth with increased opportunities that encourage feelings of validation from other personal achievements in addition to sex while simultaneously addressing the structural conditions that drive young people to feel powerless.

The Development of an HIV Risk Environment Scale of Exotic Dance Clubs.

Exotic dancers have received little research attention despite evidence of high-risk behaviours within exotic dance clubs (EDCs). We developed and assessed the reliability and validity of a risk environment score, examining differences between dancers (n = 107) and other staff (n = 172). In the summer of 2013, anonymous surveys were administered via A-CASI in EDCs (N = 26) in Baltimore among exotic dancers and staff. Surveys consisted of a brief demographic section followed by 65 statements. The overall domain had an alpha = 0.77 and subdomains had the following: social (alpha = 0.87), economic (alpha = 0.92), drug (alpha = 0.89), and policy (alpha = 0.66). In a factor analysis, each domain contributed significantly to the overall latent construct. The results indicate a high level of HIV/STI risk for dancers in EDCs and underscore the need for targeted interventions in these environments. As we continue to unpack the function of the broader environment in STI/HIV risk transmission, the scale could be instructive for other settings.

Variable links within perceived police legitimacy?: fairness and effectiveness across races and places.

This work examines connections between two threads of community residents' perceptions of local police legitimacy, effectiveness and procedural fairness, and how those links depend on race, place, and race/place combinations. Previous works have connected these two threads, but have failed (a) to explore the variability of that connection by race, place, and race/place combinations across communities spanning the urban to suburban to rural continuum or (b) to model mutual influence. An extension of the group position thesis and work on minority views of police practices suggest how these variations might be patterned. Data were derived from a 2003 probability-based sampling survey of household respondents across Pennsylvania (n=1289). Generalized confirmatory factor analysis models built procedural fairness and effectiveness indices for four groups: whites in urban core counties, non-whites in urban core counties, whites in non-urban core counties, and non-whites in non-urban core counties. Non-recursive structural equation models revealed variable impacts of perceived police effectiveness on perceived police fairness and, to a lesser extent, of fairness on effectiveness. Implications for a more structurally and contextually aware understanding of links in police legitimacy models are developed.

Crime-related perceptions and walking for recreation inside and outside one's home neighborhood.

It is widely assumed crime and related concerns, including neighborhood incivilities and fear of crime, are barriers to physical activity (PA). Past studies reveal mixed evidence. Studies of impacts for crime-protective factors are less common but have similarly mixed results. This paper evaluates a comprehensive transdisciplinary conceptual framework of cross-sectional associations between crime-related perceptions and reported minutes/week of recreational walking inside and outside one's home neighborhood. Safe and Fit Environments Study (SAFE) recruited and surveyed 2302 participants from adolescents to older adults from four U.S. metropolitan areas. A zero-inflated model estimated two components of each outcome: whether the respondent walked, and minutes/week walked. Correlates of recreational walking were location-specific, differing based on walking location. Fear of crime, risk evaluation, victimization, and incivilities were not consistently associated with walking for recreation inside one's neighborhood. People with crime concerns about their own neighborhoods, however, more commonly walked for recreation outside their neighborhoods. Protective crime-related perceptions that seldom have been studied in relation to PA, such as street efficacy (i.e., the perceived ability to avoid and manage danger), were strongly associated with recreational walking in both locations, indicating the additional heuristic value of the SAFE conceptual framework. Crime-related perceptions and walking for recreation: Evaluating a conceptual model.

Predicting initiation to treatment for youth on probation: A multi-level approach.

BACKGROUND: Previous research on youth involved in the juvenile legal system (JLS), who have higher substance use prevalence than other adolescents, has focused on treatment outcomes post-initiation. Scant research has examined factors affecting treatment initiation following JLS referral. The current work addresses this gap by estimating net impacts of state, site, and client attributes on initiating treatment. METHODS: Mixed effects logistic regression models analyzed data from the Behavioral Health Services Cascade framework of the JJ-TRIALS project for 5325 youth records from 22 sites across six states, using weighted hot deck imputation to address missing data. The analysis permitted estimating net impacts of individual factors while controlling for state variation factors and separating out within-state site variation. RESULTS: Rates of treatment initiation varied significantly across sites. About 63% of outcome variation arose from site and state disparities. The odds of initiating treatment were 127% higher for youth under a higher supervision level compared to youth under low supervision. Race and ethnicity were significantly associated with initiation, with Black and Hispanic youth having 44% and 42% lower odds of initiating treatment, respectively. CONCLUSION: Individual factors, including race, ethnicity, and level of supervision, significantly differed in treatment initiation, controlling for between-state variation and allowing between-site-within-state effects to operate separately. A deeper understanding of factors shaping initiation may help behavioral health and JLS agencies to develop strategies to increase initiation for referred youth. This is the first study delineating individual, cross-program, and between-state variation in treatment initiation among referred youth.

Crime and physical activity measures from the SAFE and Fit Environments Study (SAFE): Psychometric properties across age groups.

Valid and reliable measures are needed to better understand the relationship between physical activity and crime. This paper provides a comprehensive psychometric evaluation of measures developed in the Safe and Fit Environments (SAFE) Study to assess a crime-PA conceptual framework. In addition to assessing the basic psychometric properties of each measure (e.g., variable distributions [item/scale level], internal consistency reliability), this study formally examined the measurement validity and invariance of measures across four age groups using confirmatory factor analysis. The sample (n = 2173) included 336 Adolescents (aged 12-17), 532 Young adults (aged 18-39), 838 Middle Age Adults, and 467 Older Adults (aged 66+). The psychometric evaluation of (sub)scales showed consistent factorial validity and internal consistency reliability across the majority of the measures and across the four age groups. Specifically, 14 of the 17 measures displayed statistically and practically significant factor loadings and internal consistency values in the overall sample and across the age groups. The pattern of correlations for each (sub)scale with other (sub)scales/indexes largely did not exhibit redundancy across measures. The findings expanded upon the test-retest reliability evaluation reported in Patch et al. (2019), and clarified key aspects of the construct validity of these indicators. The latter bodes well for potential utility of these indicators in future predictive models.

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and invariance assessment of the perceived powerlessness scale among youth in Baltimore.

Generalized perceived powerlessness is an important psychosocial construct that determines a wide range of health behaviors and outcomes. This study has two aims: (1) examine the structure of the newly developed perceived powerlessness scale using exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses and (2) assess the scale's invariance across key demographic variables using multi-group confirmatory factor analysis among a random household sample of African American and White youth (aged 15-24 years) residing in Baltimore, MD. Our study results demonstrated that the powerlessness scale is valid among a demographically diverse sample of urban youth, showing promise for use in future health behavior and outcome studies.

Crime and Physical Activity: Development of a Conceptual Framework and Measures.

BACKGROUND: A common hypothesis is that crime is a major barrier to physical activity, but research does not consistently support this assumption. This article advances research on crime-related safety and physical activity by developing a multilevel conceptual framework and reliable measures applicable across age groups. METHODS: Criminologists and physical activity researchers collaborated to develop a conceptual framework. Survey development involved qualitative data collection and resulted in 155 items and 26 scales. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) were computed to assess test-retest reliability in a subsample of participants (N = 176). Analyses were conducted separately by age groups. RESULTS: Test-retest reliability for most scales (63 of 104 ICCs across 4 age groups) was "excellent" or "good" (ICC ≥ .60) and only 18 ICCs were "poor" (ICC < .40). Reliability varied by age group. Adolescents (aged 12-17 y) had ICCs above the .40 threshold for 21 of 26 scales (81%). Young adults (aged 18-39 y) and middle-aged adults (aged 40-65 y) had ICCs above .40 for 24 (92%) and 23 (88%) scales, respectively. Older adults (aged 66 y and older) had ICCs above .40 for 18 of 26 scales (69%). CONCLUSIONS: The conceptual framework and reliable measures can be used to clarify the inconclusive relationships between crime-related safety and physical activity.

Neighborhood drug markets: a risk environment for bacterial sexually transmitted infections among urban youth.

We hypothesized that neighborhoods with drug markets, as compared to those without, have a greater concentration of infected sex partners, i.e. core transmitters, and that in these areas, there is an increased risk environment for STIs. This study determined if neighborhood drug markets were associated with a high-risk sex partnership and, separately, with a current bacterial STI (chlamydia and/or gonorrhea) after controlling for individual demographic and sexual risk factors among a household sample of young people in Baltimore City, MD. Analyses also tested whether links were independent of neighborhood socioeconomic status. Data for this study were collected from a household study, systematic social observations and police arrest, public health STI surveillance and U.S. census data. Nonlinear multilevel models showed that living in neighborhoods with household survey-reported drug markets increased the likelihood of having a high-risk sex partnership after controlling for individual-level demographic factors and illicit drug use and neighborhood socioeconomic status. Further, living in neighborhoods with survey-reported drug markets increased the likelihood of having a current bacterial STI after controlling for individual-level demographic and sexual risk factors and neighborhood socioeconomic status. The results suggest that local conditions in neighborhoods with drug markets may play an important role in setting-up risk environments for high-risk sex partnerships and bacterial STIs. Patterns observed appeared dependent on the type of drug market indicator used. Future studies should explore how conditions in areas with local drug markets may alter sexual networks structures and whether specific types of drug markets are particularly important in determining STI risk.