Emissions of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), dibenzofurans (PCDFs), and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) to air from waste incinerators and high thermal processes in India.

This study investigated dioxins and dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls in gasses emitted from waste incinerators and thermal processes in central and western parts of India. The concentrations of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDDs/DFs) ranged from 0.0070 to 26.8140 ng toxicity equivalent (TEQ)/Nm(3), and those of dioxin-like polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) ranged from 0.0001 × 10(-1) to 0.0295 ng TEQ/Nm(3). The characteristics of mean PCDD/F I-TEQ concentration and congener profiles were studied over all the samples of air. In particular, a pattern consisting of a low proportion of dioxin-like PCBs and high proportion of PCDDs/DFs was common for all the samples from incinerators and high-temperature processes.

Releases of dioxin-like PCBs in water, soil and residue produced from high thermal processes and waste incinerators.

This paper presents the results of DL-PCB releases to water, soil and residue from waste incinerators, crematorium and various industries such as cement, textile, paper and pulp, steel, thermal power plant, landfill sites and bricks kilns. Total TEQ as per WHO-TEFs (2006) in water, soil and residue ranged from 0.005 to 1.884 pg/L, 0.007 to 33.041 pg/g and 0.001 to 0.013 pg/g, respectively. PCB #118 was the predominant mono-ortho congener; followed by PCB #105. PCB #77 exhibited the highest values amongst non-ortho PCBs in the samples collected.

Trihalomethane formation potential in treated water supplies in urban metro city.

Trihalomethane (THM) formation potential (TFP) is very useful test to assess the level of the formation of trihalomethanes in worst case scenario. Organics in water have the potential to generate harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as THMs, as a result of their reaction with disinfectant chlorine used in drinking water. DBPs are increasingly recognized as cancerous agents. TFP of postchlorinated treated water were investigated at six water treatment plants (WTPs) in Delhi City (India). The present paper presents the current trends of TFP so that prevention and control measures can be initiated by the regulating agencies responsible for drinking water supply. Liquid-liquid extraction method, followed by qualitative and quantitative estimation by gas chromatograph equipped with electron capture detector, had been used for the determination of THMs in water samples collected at the outlet just before supplying to the consumers during 2000-2007. The TFP values from 2004 onward of all WTPs did not exceed the WHO guideline value of

"Dioxin releases in waste incinerations and thermal processes".

The releases of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs) from waste incinerators and thermal processes were investigated. The characteristics of mean PCDD/Fs I-TEQ concentrations and congener profiles were studied over the samples of water, soil, fly ash and bottom ash of individual source. The TEQ value for fly ash ranges from 0.013 to 17.01 pg-TEQ/g. Moreover, the TEQ value for bottom ash was 12.06 pg-TEQ/g and the TEQ values for the water samples were found to be in a consistent range from 0.41-0.56 ng-TEQ/L. In almost all the analyzed matrices the congener OCDD/OCDF was found in highest concentration raising the critical concerns over the overall PCDD/Fs emissions from incinerations and thermal processes.

Dioxin formation in pulp and paper mills of India.

Samples of effluents, sludge, pulp, final products (paper) and soil were collected from the identified pulp and paper mills in India. The samples were analysed for 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) and other dioxin congeners and precursors. Pulp and paper mills using chlorine for the bleaching process showed the presence of 2,3,7,8-TCDD in effluent samples. In the effluent and pulp samples from mills where chlorine dioxide was used as a bleaching agent, the 2,3,7,8-TCDD congener ranged from below the detection limit 0.05 to 0.12 ngL(-1)/ngg(-1). The relative standard deviation of reproducibility and the percent recovery of 2,3,7,8-TCDD were 2.07 and 82.4% in pulp and 2.8 and 92% in effluent, respectively. The 1,3,6,8-TCDD was the only other major dioxin congener found in the treated and untreated effluent and sludge samples. However, dichlorobenzene, trichlorophenyl, and hexachlorobiphenyl were detected in all samples. The formation of dioxins can be minimised by replacing chlorine with chlorine dioxide in bleaching processes in pulp and paper mills.

Comparison of pesticide residues in surface water and ground water of agriculture intensive areas.

The organochlorines (OClPs) and organophosphates (OPPs) pesticides in surface and ground water having intensive agriculture activity were investigated to evaluate their potential pollution and risks on human health. As per USEPA 8081 B method, liquid-liquid extraction followed by Gas-Chromatographic technique with electron capture detector and mass selective detector (GC-MS) were used for monitoring of pesticides. Among organochlorines, α,ß,γ,δ HCH's, aldrin, dicofol, DDT and its derivatives, α,ß endosulphan's and endosulphan-sulphate were analysed; dichlorovos, ethion, parathion-methyl, phorate, chlorpyrifos and profenofos were determined among organophosphates.As compared to ground water, higher concentrations of OClPs and OPPs were found in surface water. Throughout the monitoring study, α - HCH (0.39 µg/L in Amravati region),α - endosulphan (0.78 µg/L in Yavatmal region), chlorpyrifos (0.25 µg/L in Bhandara region) and parathion-methyl (0.09 µg/L in Amravati region) are frequently found pesticide in ground water, whereas α,ß,γ-HCH (0.39 µg/L in Amravati region), α,ß - endosulphan (0.42 µg/L in Amravati region), dichlorovos (0.25 µg/L in Yavatmal region), parathion-methyl (0.42 µg/L in Bhandara region), phorate (0.33 µg/L in Yavatmal region) were found in surface water.Surface water was found to be more contaminated than ground water with more number of and more concentrated pesticides. Among pesticides water samples are found to be more contaminated by organophosphate than organochlorine. Pesticides in the surface water samples from Bhandara and Yavatmal region exceeded the EU (European Union) limit of 1.0 µg/L (sum of pesticide levels in surface water) but were within the WHO guidelines for individual pesticides.

Assessment of Pesticide Contamination in Ground Water from Intensive Agricultural Sites, Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry.

A methodology proposed by US EPA (8081-B) is adopted with some modifications for low level pesticide residue analysis in ground water samples. The method is based on liquid-liquid extraction and gas chromatography with electron capture detector (GC-ECD), and confirmed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). For this study, different classes of pesticides were selected, both recent and old persistent molecules, namely organochlorine and pyrethroid insecticides. Pesticide residues could be detected in the low- to sub-ppb range (0.5 ppb and below) with good precision (0.071-0.12%, average 0.06-0.71% R.S.D.) and extraction efficiency (78-93%) for the majority of analytes. This methodology has been applied in a monitoring program of water samples from an intensive agricultural area in five districts of Maharashtra (India). The pesticides detected in the two-year sampling program (2008/2009) were Alpha HCH, Beta HCH, lindane, Delta HCH, p,p'-DDE, o'p-DDD, Alpha Endosulphan, Beta Endosulphan and endosulfan sulphate. A survey of the type of pesticides being used in the area, along with the crop pattern, has also been done. The outcome of the study would be useful in predicting the pathway of pesticides from agricultural field to consumer end, and persistence of pesticides in the water bodies.

Analytical techniques for isolation and characterization of PPCPs in wastewater.

Pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs) are present in medicines, cleaning agents, cosmetics, detergents, nutritional supplements and skin care products. These compounds get washed from the body and enter water systems ultimately winding up in the wastewater and aquatic environment. Even after wastewater treatment, PPCPs are retained and discharged in to the environment. Some of the commonly used PPCPs like cholesterol, caffeine, 1, 7 dimethylxanthine have been found in the detectable concentrations in sanitary wastewater. The PPCPs of interest viz. Cholesterol, Caffeine and 1,7 dimethylxanthine were isolated using liquid-liquid extraction (LLE) and solid phase extraction system (SPE) analyzed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) following USEPA 1694. The isolation and characterization of cholesterol, caffeine and 1,7 dimethylxanthine in simulated and field samples have been discussed in this paper.

Seasonal variation of trihalomethane formation potential in treated water supplies of Delhi City (India).

The main goal in using chlorine as water disinfectant is to protect the water in the distribution systems against microbial contamination and to prevent and control re-growth of microorganisms in the water distribution system. Organics in water have the potential to generate harmful disinfection by-products (DBPs) such as trihalomethanes (THMs) as a result of their reaction with chlorine. DBPs are increasingly recognized as cancerous agents. Residual chlorine concentration, temperature and pH are the major factors that influence the rate and degree of THMs formation. Trihalomethanes formation potential (TFP) is very useful test to assess the level of the formation of trihalomethanes. Seasonal variations of TFP of post chlorinated treated water were investigated at six water treatment plants (WTPs) in Delhi City (India).The post chlorinated treated water samples from Bhagirathi, Sonia Vihar, Wazirabad, Nangloi, Okhla, and Haiderpur WTPs were collected just at the outlet before water supply to the consumers. The investigation was based on an intensive bi-monthly sampling program, undertaken from May 2007 to March 2008. Correlation among TFP, residual chlorine, temperature and pH, and their variation throughout the year is also discussed in this paper.

Trends of organochlorine pesticides in drinking water supplies.

The effectiveness of the treatment process for the removal of pesticides in the final water supplies in Delhi has been evaluated. Samples were collected during 2000-2005 from five water treatment plants (WTPs). Analysis was carried out to identify pesticides, which are more commonly encountered in treated drinking water. In most of the treatment plants, the concentrations of lindane, total endosulphan and total DDT were significantly less in the finished water. Monitoring of these less soluble pesticide in the finished water from WTPs was done quarterly to arrive at the quality trends and to plan for the mitigation action, in case the concentration of the parameter exceeded at any site or time.

Hydrogen peroxide and ultraviolet irradiations in water treatment.

Trihalomethanes (THMs) the by-products of chlorination in water treatment are recognised as a threat to public health due to their carcinogenicity. The photodegradation of THMs using hydrogen peroxide has been found to give increased removal efficiency and the outcome of the study may find, its application in designing a unit process for water treatment. Batch experiments were carried out using UV lamp of 83 W and 40% w/w Hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) in test waters between 2.5-10 pH range of chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform at 50-200 microg L(-1) initial concentration. 92-100% removal of chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform were found with 0.1% of H(2)O(2) and 90 min of UV exposure.

Water quality status of Murda village in Ramtek tehsil.

Major concern for the tribals, residing at Murda village in Ramtek tehsil, has always been assumed to be the contaminated drinking water. It has been frequently reported that adults and children of this village possess white patches on hands due to consumption of this contaminated water. In this context, an attempt has been made to assess the water quality of Murda village so as to find out the effective solutions. The paper highlights the studies carried out to assess the quality of drinking water supplied to the village Murda and its impacts, on the habitants.

Trihalomethane formation potential and concentration changes during water treatment at Mumbai (India).

The treated water at the outlet of treatment plants and representative service reservoirs of Mumbai city have been evaluated for trihalomethane formation potential in 1995-1996. Chloroform, dichlorobromomethane, chlorodibromomethane and bromoform have been monitored during monsoon, winter and summer. The levels of chloroform are found above the regulated WHO guideline value of 200 microg L(-1) in final water during postmonsoon at Ghatkopar (226 microg L(-1)), Malbar (210.3 microg L(-1)) and Tulsi (231.26 microg L(-1)).