Breed distributions for diabetes mellitus and hypothyroidism in Norwegian dogs.

BACKGROUND: Diabetes mellitus (DM) and hypothyroidism are common canine endocrinopathies. Both canine DM and primary hypothyroidism are assumed to originate from autoimmune destruction of the respective endocrine glands and have been associated with the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) gene region. This study aims to investigate breed distributions for DM and hypothyroidism in the Norwegian canine population by calculating odds ratios (OR) from two different comparator groups. METHODS: Results from canine serum samples submitted from 2001 to 2018 to the Veterinary Clinical Pathology Laboratory (VCPL) at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Norwegian University of Life Sciences for analysis of fructosamine and thyroid hormones in serum were used as cases in a retrospective bivariate analysis of canine breeds. The ORs were calculated as a measure of risk for the included breeds, where all the submitted blood samples to the VCPL and dogs registered in the Norwegian Kennel Club (NKK), the national organization for dog owners, were used as two comparator groups. RESULTS: Significant differences in disease prevalence between breeds were discovered using both comparator groups. Australian terrier, Swedish lapphund, Samoyed, and Schipperke were at highest risk for DM. German Shepherd, Golden retriever, German pointing dog, and Collie presented as the breeds with lowest risk for DM. For hypothyroidism, Schnauzer, Eurasier, Dunker, and English setter were at highest risk for developing the disease. The breeds at lowest risk of developing hypothyroidism were Rottweiler, Dachshund, German shepherd, and Border collie. The results from the different comparator groups gave different ORs and ranks, but the breeds with highest and lowest odds showed the same susceptibility using both comparators. CONCLUSIONS: These findings support that there are breeds more and less prone to develop DM and hypothyroidism. A strong genetic predisposition involved in the aetiology of these two diseases is therefore likely. Interestingly, there also appeared to be an inverse relationship of odds for the two diseases for some of the breeds since some breeds that had a high OR for DM or hypothyroidism had a lower OR for the other disease. This indicates that there may be different risk alleles/haplotypes for the two diseases. The possible aetiological relationship between canine DM and hypothyroidism should be further investigated.

A population study of a mutation allele associated with cone-rod dystrophy in the standard wire-haired dachshund.

Cone-rod dystrophy in the standard wire-haired dachshund (SWHD) is inherited as a simple autosomal recessive trait and the recently discovered mutation is widespread within the SWHD population in Norway and other Scandinavian countries. The gene frequency was estimated to be 4.8%. On the basis of the assumption that the size of the ancestral haplotype around a mutation is inversely correlated with the number of generations since the mutation arose, we have found that the mutation is of a relatively recent origin. The conserved haplotype was found to be 8 Mb in size and therefore we estimate that the mutation arose roughly eight generations (approximately 37 years) ago. This indicates that the mutation arose after breed separation.

Establishment of the European College of Veterinary Clinical Pathology (ECVCP) and the current status of veterinary clinical pathology in Europe.

After 5 years of development, the European College of Veterinary Clinical Pathology (ECVCP) was formally recognized and approved on July 4, 2007 by the European Board of Veterinary Specialisation (EBVS), the European regulatory body that oversees specialization in veterinary medicine and which has approved 23 colleges. The objectives, committees, basis for membership, constitution, bylaws, information brochure and certifying examination of the ECVCP have remained unchanged during this time except as directed by EBVS. The ECVCP declared full functionality based on the following criteria: 1) a critical mass of 65 members: 15 original diplomates approved by the EBVS to establish the ECVCP, 37 de facto diplomates, 7 diplomates certified by examination, and 5 elected honorary members; 2) the development and certification of training programs, laboratories, and qualified supervisors for residents; currently there are 18 resident training programs in Europe; 3) administration of 3 annual board-certifying examinations thus far, with an overall pass rate of 70%; 4) European consensus criteria for assessing the continuing education of specialists every 5 years; 5) organization of 8 annual scientific congresses and a joint journal (with the American Society for Veterinary Clinical Pathology) for communication of scientific research and information; the College also maintains a website, a joint listserv, and a newsletter; 6) collaboration in training and continuing education with relevant colleges in medicine and pathology; 7) development and strict adherence to a constitution and bylaws compliant with the EBVS; and 8) demonstration of compelling rationale, supporting data, and the support of members and other colleges for independence as a specialty college. Formal EBVS recognition of ECVCP as the regulatory body for the science and practice of veterinary clinical pathology in Europe will facilitate growth and development of the discipline and compliance of academic, commercial diagnostic, and industry laboratories in veterinary clinical pathology. Future needs are in developing sponsorship for resident positions, increasing employment opportunities, increasing compliance with laboratory, training, and continuing education standards, and advancing relevant science and technology.

Serum fructosamine measurement: a new diagnostic approach to renal glucosuria in dogs.

Measurement of serum fructosamine, 1-amino-1-deoxyfructose, is commonly used in diagnosing and monitoring hyperglycaemic disorders, such as diabetes mellitus in dogs. Serum fructosamine indicates long-term serum glucose concentrations and replaces serial serum glucose measurements. This study investigates the clinical usefulness of serum fructosamine in differentiating conditions other than diabetes mellitus characterised by glucosuria. Four dogs presented with glucosuria all had serum fructosamine concentrations within or close to the reference range (313 micromol 1(-1), 291 micromol 1(-1), 348 micromol 1(-1), 262 micromol 1(-1) reference range: 250 to 320 micromol 1(-1) indicating that a single serum fructosamine measurement is a simple and efficient way of verifying concurrent persistent normoglycaemia. Therefore, serum fructosamine is a useful parameter not only in diabetic patients, bu also in differentiating conditions in dogs characterised by glucosuria without hyperglycaemia, such as primary renal glucosuria and the Fanconi syndrome. To distinguish between primary renal glucosuria and the Fanconi syndrome, measurement of the amino acid concentration in urine was performed.

Fatty acid composition of serum lipids in atopic and healthy dogs.

Fatty acids are increasingly used in the treatment of canine atopic dermatitis and their beneficial effects are documented in several prospective, controlled studies. Results from recent studies have indicated that atopic dogs have disordered fat metabolism, due to decreased desaturase activity. To further clarify these possible abnormalities, we examined serum fatty acid patterns in dogs with atopic dermatitis and normal controls. Atopic dermatitis was diagnosed according to the diagnostic criteria proposed by Willemse, after elimination of other possible causes of pruritic dermatitis. Both the relative and the absolute amounts of fatty acids in sera were determined by gas chromatography. Differences in the serum fatty acid pattern indicating a reduction in desaturase activity were not detected in atopic dogs when compared with controls.

Diabetes mellitus and bilateral cataracts in a kitten.

An 18-week-old male domestic long-hair kitten was presented with a history of polyuria and polydipsia for several weeks. The general condition was unremarkable, but the kitten was considerably smaller than expected for the age and showed cataracts in both eyes. Serum glucose concentrations were persistently elevated and based on clinical findings and an elevated serum fructosamine concentration, a diagnosis of diabetes mellitus was established. Diabetes mellitus is not commonly diagnosed in young kittens, nor are cataracts recognised as a frequent feature of this disease in cats. The cataracts progressed in spite of the insulin therapy and the kitten was euthanised 10 weeks after referral. Histopathological examination of the pancreas revealed few and small islets of Langerhans compared to the examination of pancreas from a healthy kitten of the same age. Histopathological changes in the eyes included cataracts affecting both cortex and nucleus.

Diagnosis, treatment, and long-term follow-up of bilateral, upper urinary tract infection (UTI) in a cat.

A case of bilateral, upper urinary tract infection caused by haemolytic E coli in a female Birman cat is presented. Ultrasonographic examination of the kidneys documented changes in size, outline, echogenicity and architecture. Ultrasound guided fine needle aspiration of fluid from the renal pelvis was used to make the diagnosis. Fluid was submitted for culture and sensitivity and based on the results, antimicrobial therapy was initiated. The treatment was monitored over a 406-day follow-up period. Despite extensive treatment with specific antibiotics and supportive therapy, recurrence of urinary tract infection occurred.

Treatment of diabetes mellitus in dogs using isophane insulin penfills and the use of serum fructosamine assays to diagnose and monitor the disease.

The objectives of the study were to test the use of a prefilled insulin syringe (Insulatard Novolet, isophane insulin, 100 IU/mL) in treating diabetic dogs and to test the clinical usefulness of serum fructosamine measurements in diagnosing and monitoring diabetes mellitus in dogs. For this study 15 dogs from throughout Norway with newly diagnosed diabetes mellitus were included and treated over a period of 180 days. All 15 dogs showed pretreatment hyperglycaemia. Of the 13 dogs tested, all showed elevated pretreatment serum fructosamine values. Within 2 weeks, 3 of the 15 included dogs had dropped out of the study. In 8 of the 12 remaining dogs, the clinical signs ceased within this period. Within a month, another dog was euthanised and one had died. Seven of the 10 remaining dogs were clinically normal. Three dogs had normal serum fructosamine concentrations, while in 6 dogs moderately or highly elevated serum fructosamine concentrations persisted. In one case serum fructosamine was not measured at this time. Increase in serum fructosamine concentration seemed to reflect hyperglycaemia and deteriorated clinical condition. Decrease in serum fructosamine concentration seemed to reflect improved glycaemic status and clinical condition. During the study period the owners did a total of approximately 3500 injections on their dogs. No reports of injection difficulties were received. This study documents that Insulatard Novolet is easy and safe to use in treating diabetic dogs and that serum fructosamine reflects long-term glucose concentrations in dogs. Serum fructosamine measurements provided a simple and easy way to diagnose persistent hyperglycaemia and monitor the treatment in diabetic patients.

Reference values for serum biochemical parameters in free-ranging harp seals.

BACKGROUND: The harp seal (Phoca groenlandica) is one of the most important predators in the Northeastern Atlantic ecosystem. Establishing biochemical reference intervals is important for evaluating the health status of harp seals kept in captivity and for evaluating the effects of environmental changes on the health of populations in the wild. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine reference values for serum biochemical parameters in wild adult harp seals using readily available current methods. METHODS: Blood samples were obtained from 14 adult female harp seals and 9 suckling pups on the pack ice of the Greenland Sea in early March 1998. Seven seals were humanely killed on the ice by permission of the Norwegian Directory of Fisheries and in conjunction with several other research projects. The seals were sampled within 15 minutes postmortem. Remaining seals were captured alive and sampled via the extradural intravertebral vein. Serum biochemical parameters were measured using a Technicon Axon analyzer and included electrolytes (sodium, chloride, potassium, magnesium, and calcium), substrates (free fatty acids, triglycerides, fructosamine, and glucose), end products (urea and uric acid), and proteins (total protein, globulins, and albumin). Serum protein electrophoresis also was done. Data were tested for normality and reference limits were calculated as mean +/- 1.96 X SD. Results between groups were compared using 2-tailed t-tests. RESULTS: Serum levels of glucose and triglycerides were lower, but serum levels of urea were higher in dead animals than in animals that were captured alive. Serum levels for 7 of 17 parameters were significantly different in pups compared with adults. Separate reference intervals were calculated for adult seals and seal pups. CONCLUSION: Both sampling method and age should be considered when evaluating the results of future analysis of serum parameters in wild and captive harp seals.

Determination of a reference range for fructosamine in feline serum samples.

Fructosamine, the product of a non-enzymatic reaction between glucose and serum proteins, is a component of serum which reflects long-term deviations from normal glucose and protein homeostasis. Thirty-one healthy, intact, domestic short-haired cats, living under uniform feeding and environmental conditions, were sampled to calculate a reference range for feline serum fructosamine. The results were obtained using a nitroblue tetrazolium colorimetric method. The analytical assay was evaluated by calculation of within-run and between-day variation, detection limit, and accuracy. Serum fructosamine concentrations were approximately normally distributed and the calculated reference range was 146-271 mumol/L (mean 209 mumol/L, standard deviation 31.6 mumol/L). There were no significant differences between male and female cats, or between cats older and younger than 12 months. Previously conducted studies give higher reference ranges, possibly because of differences in the test procedure and homogeneity of the test population.

An evaluation of serum fructosamine as a marker of the duration of hypoproteinaemic conditions in dogs.

Serum samples were collected from 153 normoglycaemic, hypoproteinaemic dogs of known case histories, and assayed for fructosamine, glucose, total protein and albumin concentrations. This study was conducted to evaluate the relationship between serum fructosamine and total serum proteins, or more specifically serum albumin. Serum fructosamine was positively correlated with both total serum protein (r = 0.47, p < 0.00001) and serum albumin (r = 0.77, p < 0.00001). Mean serum albumin concentrations were significantly different when the data were grouped as dogs with normal versus subnormal serum fructosamine concentrations. The data indicate the value of the serum fructosamine assay in estimating the duration of hypoalbuminaemia. Concurrent hypoalbuminaemia and normal serum fructosamine indicate hypoalbuminaemia of less than one week. Concurrent hypoalbuminaemia and hypofructosaminaemia indicate persistent hypoalbuminaemia of more than one week, and concurrent normal albumin and hypofructosaminaemia indicate recovery from a condition including hypoalbuminaemia or hypoglycaemia.

A retrospective study of hyposensitization in canine atopy based on a polyclonal ELISA test.

Compliance with the treatment protocol and the most significant reasons encountered in general practice for the discontinuation of treatment in hyposensitized dogs are examined. The data are based on (1) a review of order forms for the hyposenzitization mixture and information sheets for an ELISA test and (2) telephone interviews with dog owners. Most of the owners (81%) gave their dogs allergen injections at home. Non-compliance was defined as discontinuation of treatment in the induction period; 33.9% of the owners became non-compliant. A large proportion of non-compliant owners (51.2%) claimed to be unaware of the length of the induction period. Furthermore, 70.2% of the owners were not aware that treatment would most likely need to be lifelong if it was to remain effective. Although 67.5% of the owners perceived that their dogs had beneficial effects from hyposensitization, only 36.3% of the dogs were receiving maintenance injections at the time of the telephone interview, considerably reducing the long-term benefit from treatment. Canine atopy is a chronic disease characterized by remission and relapses. Since no control group was available in this study, the beneficial outcome of treatment reported by the owners could be partly due to the natural course of the disease. Nevertheless, the results indicated that the long-term effect of hyposensitization in canine atopy will be reduced by premature discontinuation of treatment in the maintenance period. The discontinuation of treatment could be a reflection of the treatment becoming less effective, owing to the development of new hypersensitivities or to a reduction in the placebo effect that may occur in 'new' treatments. However, poor client education and follow-up seem to be important reasons for both noncompliance and discontinuation of the treatment in the maintenance period.

Evaluation of an enzymatic immunoassay for free thyroxine determination in canine serum.

Free thyroxine (FT4) and cholesterol were measured in 400 dogs with either suspected hypothyroidism or dermatological signs such that hypothyroidism needed to be ruled out. Hypothyroidism was diagnosed in 68 dogs from the history, physical examination and stated lower reference limit (< 7 pmol/L) for FT4 in euthryoid dogs. Dogs with FT4 concentrations in the range 6-9 pmol/L were finally categorized as hypo- or euthyroid either on the basis of retesting after 2 months or on their clinical response to thyroid replacement therapy over at least 2 months. The enzyme immunoassay evaluated in this paper is considered to be of clinical value and offers many advantages compared with radioimmunoassays.

The antimicrobial susceptibility of Staphylococcus species isolated from canine dermatitis.

In a retrospective study, 1538 strains of beta-haemolysin-producing Staphylococcus species isolated from dermatitis in dogs at three veterinary clinical microbiology laboratories in Norway during 1986-87 and 1993-94 were investigated for their antimicrobial susceptibility. None of the strains was resistant to cloxacillin, cephalexin or the quinolones enrofloxacin and ciprofloxacin. More than 96% of the strains were susceptible to trimethoprim-sulphonamide, bacitracin and fucidic acid. Between 67% and 89% of the strains were susceptible to erythromycin, lincosamides, tetracycline, neomycin and chloramphenicol. Only 37.9% of the strains were susceptible to penicillin. The frequency of penicillin resistance increased significantly between the first and second periods, from 46.0% to 58.6%. The frequency of resistance to lincomycin, clindamycin and erythromycin also increased significantly between the first and second periods, from 3.0%, 2.1% and 3.3% to 25.5%, 19.5% and 24.8%, respectively. A moderate increase in resistance to tetracycline was also noted, from 20.4% in the first to 27.6% in the second period. On the other hand, the frequency of resistance to trimethoprim-sulphonamide decreased significantly from 4.1% in the first to 0.9% in the second period. Many different resistance patterns were observed in each period. However, the proportion of multiresistant strains increased from 2.1% in the first to 10.2% in the second period. There was a decrease in resistance to the combination of trimethoprim-sulphonamide and penicillin from the first to the second period. Resistance to the combination of lincosamides and penicillin increased. For the combinations penicillin-tetracycline-lincosamides, penicillin-lincosamides-erythromycin, and penicillin-tetracycline-lincosamides-erythromycin, there was a striking increase in resistance between the first and the second periods.

Clinical usefulness of fructosamine measurements in diagnosing and monitoring feline diabetes mellitus.

Fructosamines are glycated serum proteins that reflect long-term serum glucose concentrations in humans and several animal species. In the present study, blood samples were drawn from three populations of diabetic cats: untreated diabetic cats with clinical symptoms prevailing only a few days (n = 1), untreated diabetic cats with symptoms lasting more than two weeks (n = 6) and clinically well stabilised diabetic cats receiving insulin twice daily which showed no signs of disease (n = 4). All untreated diabetic cats showed elevated fructosamine measurements. Based on fructosamine measurements, clinically well stabilised diabetic cats could be subdivided further according to the degree of glycaemic control. Diabetic cats with satisfactory glycaemic control revealed fructosamine concentrations within or close to the reference range (146 to 271 mumol/liter), whereas fructosamine concentrations above 400 mumol/liter indicated insufficient glycaemic control. This study suggests that the fructosamine assay reflects persistently elevated serum glucose concentrations in cats and is a useful parameter for diagnosing and monitoring diabetes mellitus in cats.

Male pseudohermaphroditism in a cat.

A seven-month-old male pedigree cat was brought to the Norwegian College of Veterinary Medicine for routine castration. Visual examination of the external genitalia revealed a wide genital cleft with non-fused bilaterally located testicular pouches. A large clitoris, which was penis-like with small penile spines, was seen protruding dorsally from the ventral commissure of the genital cleft. During an exploratory coeliotomy, no intra-abdominal genital structures of müllerian origin were found. The skin pouches on either side of the vulvar cleft were incised and grossly normal testicles were removed. Histology of the removed gonads showed no or very sparse spermatogenesis. The chromosomal sex was determined by karyotyping to be a normal male 38XY. Based on these findings, the diagnosis of male pseudohermaphroditism was made. The aetiology of the condition in this cat was not determined.

Diagnosis and clinical course of canine oral papillomavirus infection.

A six-month-old intact male rottweiler presented with papillomatous growths protruding from the oral mucous membranes. A tentative diagnosis of canine oral papillomavirus (COPV) infection was made based on the gross appearance of the numerous lesions and the young age of the patient. Two warts from the oral mucosa were removed surgically for further diagnostic investigations. The viral aetiology of the diseases was confirmed by histopathological and electron microscopic findings, and by the identification of specific COPV DNA is removed oral papillomatous tissue. The patient was followed clinically and complete regression of the oral lesions occurred after four weeks. Neither the route of transmission nor the source of infection was found. Immunodeficiency as a contributing aetiological factor to the development of COPV-induced lesions as discussed.

Pancreatic insulin-secreting carcinoma in a dog: fructosamine for determining persistent hypoglycaemia.

A five-year-old intact male rottweiler was presented with a history of episodic weakness and mild-generalised seizures. A tentative diagnosis of an insulin-secreting tumour in the pancreas was made based on fasting hypoglycaemia with concomitant hyperinsulinaemia and a subnormal fructosamine value. The diagnosis was confirmed by exploratory coeliotomy, intravenous infusion of methylene blue, histopathology and immuno-histochemical analysis of suspected neoplastic tissue. Fructosamine assays are traditionally used for monitoring the metabolic status of diabetics where a single elevated measurement reflects persistent hyperglycaemia. This report suggests that a single low measurement of fructosamine may indicate persistent hypoglycaemia and may be helpful, in conjunction with an insulin measurement, in the diagnosis of insulin-secreting tumours.

Genetic homogeneity of Taylorella equigenitalis from Norwegian trotting horses revealed by chromosomal DNA fingerprinting.

Chromosomal DNA fingerprinting indicated that Norwegian Taylorella equigenitalis strains are genetically homogeneous and similar to some Swedish isolates but different from other European strains. As contagious equine metritis is rarely a serious disease in Norwegian horses, we conclude that the dominant T. equigenitalis strain in Norway is a genetically homogeneous clone of low virulence.

Effects of storage time and freezing temperature on clinical chemical parameters from canine serum and heparinized plasma.

To assess changes in 24 blood constituents in frozen serum and heparinized plasma, blood samples were drawn from 10 clinically normal German Shepherd army dogs. The storage characteristics of nine enzymes (ALP, ALT, amylase, AST, CK, GGT, GLDH, LDH, lipase), and 15 metabolites and minerals (albumin, bile acids, bilirubin, calcium, cholesterol, creatinine, fructosamine, glucose, magnesium, phosphate, potassium, protein, sodium, triglycerides, urea) were studied. Parallel samples of serum and heparinized plasma were stored for 90 and 240 days at two different storage temperatures, -200 degrees C and -700 degrees C. Sixteen of the 24 analytes (ALP, ALT, amylase, AST, CK, GGT, GLDH, LDH, bile acids, calcium, cholesterol, creatinine, fructosamine, magnesium, phosphate, urea) showed statistically significant (p < 0.05) changes during the storage period related to storage time, storage temperature, and sample type. Seven of the analytes (amylase, GGT, GLDH, LDH, bile acids, fructosamine, magnesium) showed changes of possible clinical importance with mean differences from baseline larger than 20% for the enzymes and 10% for the metabolites and minerals during the storage periods.