Bovine extracellular vesicles contaminate human extracellular vesicles produced in cell culture conditioned medium when 'exosome-depleted serum' is utilised.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are important intercellular communication messengers. Half of the published studies in the field are in vitro cell culture based in which bovine serum in various concentrations and forms is used to facilitate the production of extracellular vesicles. 'Exosome depleted serum' is the type of bovine serum most widely used in the production of human EVs. Herein, we demonstrate that, despite the initial caution raised in 2014 about the persistence of bovine EVs, 'exosome depleted serum' was still used in 46% of publications on human or rodent EVs between 2015 and 2019. Using nanoparticle tracking analysis combined with detergent lysis of vesicles as well as bovine CD9 ELISA, we show that there were approximately 5.33 x 107/mL of bovine EVs remaining in the 'exosome depleted serum'. Importantly, the 'exosome depleted serum' was relatively enriched in small EVs by approximately 2.7-fold relative to the large EVs compared to that in the original serum. Specifically, the percentage of small EVs in total vesicles had increased from the original 48% in the serum before ultracentrifugation to 92% in the 'exosome depleted serum'. Furthermore, the pervasive bovine EVs carried over by the 'exosome depleted serum', even when the lowest concentration (0.5%) was used in cell culture, resulted in a significant contamination of human EVs in cell culture conditioned medium. Our findings indicate that the use 'exosome depleted serum' in cell culture-based studies may introduce artefacts into research examining the function of human and rodent EVs, in particular those involving EV miRNA. Thus, we appeal to the researchers in the EV field to seriously reconsider the practice of using 'exosome depleted serum' in the production of human and other mammalian EVs in vitro.

Development of film-forming gel containing nanoparticles for transdermal drug delivery.

Despite several studies on film-forming systems with the advantages of both the film and the hydrogel, there are still no effective systems for fast film formation with a high level of control over permeability. In this study, a film-forming system for the delivery of nanomedicine, termed a film-forming nanogel (FFN), was produced and investigated for the first time to meet this need. The objective of this research was to study a new generation of film-forming hydrogels (FFHs) loaded with curcumin nanoparticles (CUR-GNPs) for transdermal applications. FFHs were prepared by employing zein and HPMC 4000 as film-forming polymers. Meanwhile, CUR-GNPs were obtained by sonoprecipitation. The film-forming time, particle characteristics and FFN drug release profile were assessed. The optimized FFH had a smooth surface and a fast drying time of 6 min and 4.5 min in vitro and ex vivo, respectively. Additionally, high, sustained drug permeation from the FFN was observed after 24 h. The FFH containing CUR-GNPs showed potential for application in transdermal drug delivery with a fast film-forming time, uniform particle dispersion and high, sustained drug permeation.

pH-independent dissolution enhancement for multiple poorly water-soluble drugs by nano-sized solid dispersions based on hydrophobic-hydrophilic conjugates.

The objective of this study was to achieve an optimal formulation of hydrophilic-hydrophobic conjugates for nano-sized solid dispersions (SDs) with enhanced dissolution of multiple drugs in different gastrointestinal (GI) tract environments. A new conjugate powder with an optimized process was used to fabricate SDs that contained three poorly water-soluble drugs that were also poorly soluble in different dissolution media. The self-assembled nanoparticle formation, drug crystallinity and SD molecular interactions were investigated by measuring the particle size during dissolution testing and physicochemical property analysis (powder X-ray diffraction and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy). Drug release studies indicated that SD containing conjugated powder significantly improved the dissolution rates of these poorly water-soluble drugs in the GI tract. In addition, particle size analysis showed nano-sized particles in the dissolution media in the early stage with a tendency to reduce smaller particles over time. Physicochemical characterizations demonstrated almost amorphous drug states and hydrogen bonding interactions between the drugs and conjugates in the SD. This study optimized a promising material for SD, and the material was shown to have a promising performance under various pH medium conditions with poorly water-soluble drugs.

Development of solid dispersion lipid nanoparticles for improving skin delivery.

Applications of poorly water-soluble drugs in skin delivery pose several challenges to pharmaceutical formulation. This research originally developed solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) packaging a modified core of a solid dispersion (SD) in the lipid matrix to modulate the skin release patterns. Curcumin (CUR) was selected as the poorly water-soluble drug applied in the formulation. The designed system, so-called solid dispersion lipid nanoparticles (SD-SLNs), was fabricated by incorporating a solidifying SD or a non-solidifying SD into the core of the SLNs by ultrasonication. Release studies illustrated an important enhancement in the drug release of the proposed system compared to pure CUR and SLN formulations without the presence of SD as the modified core, which indicated the positive effect of the combined colloidal method of SD and SLNs. The physicochemical properties of the SD-SLN systems were also elucidated using powder X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and particle size analysis. The drug was found to change to an amorphous state without any molecular interactions along with a marked particle size reduction. This work demonstrated the strong potential of applying a novel SD-SLN system for the skin delivery of a drug with poor water solubility.

Release Kinetics of Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose Governing Drug Release and Hydrodynamic Changes of Matrix Tablet.

BACKGROUND: Hydrophilic Hydroxypropyl Methylcellulose (HPMC) matrix tablets are the standard role model of the oral controlled-release formulation. Nevertheless, the HPMC kinetics for the mechanistic understanding of drug release and hydrodynamic behaviors are rarely investigated. This study aims to investigate the release behaviors of both HPMC and paracetamol (model drug) from the hydrophilic matrix tablet. METHODS: Two different viscosity grades of HPMC were used (Low viscosity: 6 cps, High viscosity: 4,000 cps). Three different ratios of drug/HPMC (H:38.08%, M:22.85%, and L:15.23% (w/w) of HPMC amounts in total weight) matrix tablets were prepared by wet granulation technique. The release profiles of the drug and HPMC in a matrix tablet were quantitatively analyzed by HPLC and 1H-Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The hydrodynamic changes of HPMC were determined by the gravimetric behaviors such as swelling and erosion rates, gel layer thickness, front movement data,and distributive Near-Infrared (NIR) chemical imaging of HPMC in a matrix tablet during the dissolution process. RESULTS: High viscosity HPMC tablets showed slower release of HPMC than the release rate of drug, suggesting that drug release preceded polymer release.Different hydration phenomenon was qualitatively identified and corresponded to the release profiles. The release behaviors of HPMC and drug in the tablet could be distinguished with the significant difference with fitted dissolution kinetics model (Low viscosity HPMC 6cps; Korsmeyer-Peppas model, High viscosity HPMC 4000cps; Hopfenberg model, Paracetamol; Weibull model) according to the weight of ingredients and types of HPMC. CONCLUSION: The determination of HPMC polymer release correlating with drug release, hydrodynamic behavior, and NIR chemical imaging of HPMC can provide new insights into the drug release- modulating mechanism in the hydrophilic matrix system.

Current Film Coating Designs for Colon-Targeted Oral Delivery.

Colon-targeted oral delivery has recently attracted a substantial number of studies on both systemic and local treatments. Among approaches for colonic delivery, film coatings have been demonstrated as effective elements of the drug delivery systems because they can integrate multiple release strategies, such as pH-controlled release, time-controlled release and enzyme-triggered release. Moreover, coating layer modulations, natural film materials and nanoparticle coatings have been vigorously investigated with promising applications. This review aims to describe the primary approaches for improving drug delivery to the colon in the last decade. The outstanding importance of current developments in film coatings will advance dosage form designs and lead to the development of efficient colon-targeted oral delivery systems.

Blueberry Supplementation in Neuronal Health and Protective Technologies for Efficient Delivery of Blueberry Anthocyanins.

Blueberries are consumed as healthy fruits that provide a variety of benefits to the nervous system. Scientists have found that blueberries can be used as a daily edible source for supplementation to prevent and minimize complexities of age-related diseases as well as to improve learning and memory in children. Anthocyanins are the most mentioned compounds among the components in blueberries, as they play a major role in providing the health benefits of this fruit. However, while they are highly active in impeding biological impairment in neuronal functions, they have poor bioavailability. This review focuses on neurological investigations of blueberries from in vitro cell studies to in vivo studies, including animal and human studies, with respect to their positive outcomes of neuroprotection and intervention in neurodegenerative conditions. Readers will also find information on the bioavailability of anthocyanins and the considerable factors affecting them so that they can make informed decisions regarding the daily consumption of blueberries. In this context, the ways in which blueberries or blueberry supplementation forms are consumed and which of these forms is best for maximizing the health benefits of blueberries should be considered important decision-making factors in the consumption of blueberries; all of these aspects are covered in this review. Finally, we discuss recent technologies that have been employed to improve the bioavailability of blueberry anthocyanins in the development of effective delivery vehicles supporting brain health.

Mucoadhesive Formulation Designs for Oral Controlled Drug Release at the Colon.

Mucoadhesive formulations have been demonstrated to result in efficient drug delivery systems with advantages over existing systems such as increased local retention and sustained drug release via adhesiveness to mucosal tissues. The controlled release of colon-targeted, orally administered drugs has recently attracted a number of studies investigating mucoadhesive systems. Consequently, substantial designs, from mucoadhesive cores to shells of particles, have been studied with promising applications. This review will provide an overview of specific strategies for developing mucoadhesive systems for colon-targeted oral delivery with controlled drug release, including mucoadhesive matrices, cross-linked mucoadhesive microparticles, coatings and mucoadhesive nanoparticles. The understanding of the basic principle of these designs and advanced formulations throughout will lead to the development of products with efficient drug delivery at the colon for therapies for different diseases.

Clay-based Formulations for Bioavailability Enhancement of Poorly Water-soluble Drugs.

Clays have been used in various health care products, including drug delivery systems. Advanced formulations have been investigated to take full advantage of clays or clay-based materials. The remarkable properties of clays, such as high adsorption, high surface area and high ion exchange capacities, provide an ideal system for the delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs. Currently, there is still limited information on the classification and discussion of clay-based formulations for poorly water-soluble drugs. This review aims to describe efficient delivery systems that use clay as the main excipient in formulations. More details regarding the strategies of using clays in formulations as well as fabrication methods will be discussed. Moreover, combinations with other excipients in hybrid formulations will also be mentioned and the efficacy of these systems will be evaluated. The recent studies on claybased formulations for poorly water-soluble drugs provide fundamental approaches and prospects to be applied in drug development.

Encapsulation of Lipid-based Formulations in Porous Carriers for Controlled Drug Delivery.

Lipid-based formulations have recently been investigated as a promising approach to enhance the bioavailability of drugs, especially poorly water-soluble drugs. The encapsulation of lipid-based formulations in porous materials can result in a transformation of liquids or semisolid forms to solid dosage forms. Moreover, the specific structure of porous carriers could offer an enhanced ability to load and control active pharmaceutical ingredients. Although there have been prominent reports on lipid-based formulations and porous materials as promising technologies for controlled drug release, the overall methods of encapsulating lipid-based formulations need to be discussed for further formulation investigations. This review aims to present the key strategies used for producing porous carriers containing lipid-based formulations. We also discuss methods that enhance the encapsulation efficiency of loaded drugs within porous structures (instead of lipid-based formulations). Moreover, the critical factors that affect tablet formation are outlined. This overview of lipid-based formulations encapsulated within porous materials provides a summary of the technical methods used in the development of these formulations and their clinical translation.

Current developments in the oral drug delivery of fucoidan.

Fucoidan is well known to have various biological functions and is often investigated for pharmaceutical applications. Several studies have been conducted on clinical applications of fucoidan in recent years, especially regarding its oral drug delivery. Although fucoidan has shown promising results in various dosage forms, its potential applications as a dietary supplement have been demonstrated, and recent studies show that oral administration of fucoidan is preferred. However, the focus on the oral delivery of fucoidan in recent studies has caused its potency in therapy to be understudied. This review aims to provide results on the promising fucoidan activity by oral administration with in vivo studies. In addition to using it as an active ingredient, the utilization of fucoidan as an excipient in oral drug delivery systems will be discussed. An overview of fucoidan administration by oral delivery in recent promising studies will provide a direction for further investigations in clinical applications, particularly for fucoidan, which has a broad spectrum of bioactive properties.

Recent studies on the processes and formulation impacts in the development of solid dispersions by hot-melt extrusion.

Industrial-scale pharmaceutical applications still face many challenges in overcoming the low absorption and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. Hot-melt extrusion has emerged as a promising approach with continuous processing on an industrial scale for the preparation of drug delivery systems. Many reviews have mentioned the potential applications, processes, principles and advantages and disadvantages of hot-melt extrusion in the pharmaceutical industry. However, a focus on the recent progress of hot-melt extrusion, which investigates the impacts of processes and formulations of solid dispersions of poorly water-soluble drugs, is missing. In this review, various factors, including polymers, drug properties, additives and surfactants, in solid dispersion SD formulations by hot-melt extrusion will be discussed. Moreover, the effects of the hot-melt extrusion process on the physicochemical properties of solid dispersions will be mentioned. The utilization of molecular interactions in hot-melt extrusion to improve drug stability will also be described. Overall, this summary of recent studies on solid dispersion by hot-melt extrusion will provide perspectives and effectiveness for the development of formulations containing poorly water-soluble drugs.

Strategies and formulations of freeze-dried tablets for controlled drug delivery.

The freeze-drying process has been particularly attractive for preparing tablets for controlled drug release. Although traditional methods, such as granulation or direct compression methods, have been used in various studies to produce tablets with controlled release, freeze-drying processes have been utilized in certain circumstances due to their distinct advantages. However, overall, further development of these strategies, which started with early studies on orally disintegrating tablets, is still necessary. In this review, the incorporation of different formulations into freeze-dried tablets will be discussed. Moreover, the use of excipients, freeze-drying conditions, formulation reconstitution and tablet structure for optimizing the performance of freeze-dried tablets will be reported, including strategies with nanoformulations and natural materials. Generally, this discussion with potential approaches will benefit further development of freeze-dried tablets containing drugs in the pharmaceutical industry.

Current Studies of Aspirin as an Anticancer Agent and Strategies to Strengthen its Therapeutic Application in Cancer.

Aspirin has emerged as a promising intervention in cancer in the past decade. However, there are existing controversies regarding the anticancer properties of aspirin as its mechanism of action has not been clearly defined. In addition, the risk of bleeding in the gastrointestinal tract from aspirin is another consideration that requires medical and pharmaceutical scientists to work together to develop more potent and safe aspirin therapy in cancer. This review presents the most recent studies of aspirin with regard to its role in cancer prevention and treatment demonstrated by highlighted clinical trials, mechanisms of action as well as approaches to develop aspirin therapy best beneficial to cancer patients. Hence, this review provides readers with an overview of aspirin research in cancer that covers not only the unique features of aspirin, which differentiate aspirin from other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), but also strategies that can be used in the development of drug delivery systems carrying aspirin for cancer management. These studies convey optimistic messages on the continuing efforts of the scientist on the way of developing an effective therapy for patients with a low response to current cancer treatments.

Fast-Dissolving Solid Dispersions for the Controlled Release of Poorly Watersoluble Drugs.

Solid dispersions offer many advantages for oral drug delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs over other systems, including an increase in drug solubility and drug dissolution. An improvement in drug absorption and the higher bioavailability of active pharmaceutical ingredients in the gastrointestinal tract have been reported in various studies. In certain circumstances, a rapid pharmacological effect is required for patients. Fastdissolving solid dispersions provide an ideal formulation in such cases. This report will provide an overview of current studies on fast-dissolving solid dispersions, including not only solid dispersion powders with fast dissolution rates but also specific dose form for the controlled release of poorly water-soluble drugs. Specifically, the applications of fast-dissolving solid dispersions will be described in every specific case. Moreover, pharmaceutical approaches and the utilization of polymers will be summarized. The classification and analysis of fastdissolving solid dispersions could provide insight into strategies and potential applications in future drug delivery developments.

Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic Film-Forming Gels for the Controlled Delivery of Drugs with Different Levels of Hydrophobicity.

BACKGROUND: This study aimed to evaluate the effects of hydrophobic and hydrophilic Film-Forming Gels (FFGs) on the controlled delivery of drugs with different levels of hydrophobicity. METHODS: This evaluation was carried out by employing zein and polyvinylpyrrolidone as hydrophobic and hydrophilic film-forming agents, respectively, in combination with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose functionalized as a hydrogel basement at a ratio that had been optimized to achieve the fastest drying time. Free curcumin or terbinafine hydrochloride was subsequently dispersed into blank FFGs to produce the final FFG formulations. RESULTS: Although the extreme hydrophobicity of curcumin strongly limited its topical permeability compared to that of terbinafine hydrochloride, zein FFGs clearly resulted in a favourable sustained release system for highly hydrophobic drugs, such as curcumin. Moreover, polyvinylpyrrolidone would be highly effective for the sustained release of a less hydrophobic drug, such as terbinafine hydrochloride. Analyses of the wettability, surface morphology, chemical interactions and crystallinity of FFGs also helped to elucidate the mechanisms of their drug release profiles. CONCLUSION: This fundamental finding is beneficial for further design studies on FFGs as sustained drug delivery systems for topical drugs with a wide range of hydrophobicities.

Film-Forming Nanogels: Effects of Nanocarriers and Film-Forming Gel on the Sustained Release of Curcumin.

BACKGROUND: Although film-forming hydrogels possess the advantages of both film and hydrogel dosage forms, certain limitations still remain. OBJECTIVE: This study aims to investigate the use of film-forming hydrogels and the effects of nanocarriers on the sustained release of a poorly water-soluble drug, curcumin. METHODS: The film-forming hydrogels contained either zein or polyvinylpyrrolidone as a film former, in addition to hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, oleic acid, ethanol and water. Curcumin was encapsulated in poly(lacticco- glycolic acid) and gelatine nanoparticles using a sonoprecipitation method. Free drug and drug-loaded nanoparticles were later dispersed into blank hydrogels to produce the film-forming nanogels. RESULTS: The results suggested that the encapsulation of curcumin in nanoparticles could reduce the drug particle size to less than 200nm for easier diffusion and could shield curcumin from chemical interactions that limit its topical permeability. Curcumin was more compatible with gelatine nanoparticles than with poly(lactic-coglycolic acid) nanoparticles, and gelatine nanoparticles, in turn, were more compatible with zein than with polyvinylpyrrolidone film-forming nanogels. Therefore, gelatine nanoparticles in zein film-forming nanogels greatly elevated the permeability of curcumin by over five times that afforded by gelatine nanoparticles in polyvinylpyrrolidone film-forming nanogels. CONCLUSION: This research suggested that film-forming nanogel is a promising drug delivery system for both improved permeability and sustained topical diffusion of the extremely hydrophobic drug curcumin depending on the compatibility between the nanocarrier and the film-forming hydrogel.

Effects of Mucoadhesive Polymers on Released Particles and Drug Release in Solid Lipid Particle-Based Buccal Tablets.

BACKGROUND: Mucoadhesive polymers play a critical role in controlled-release tablets for buccal drug delivery. OBJECTIVE: This research aimed to investigate the characterization and mechanisms of solid lipid particle-based tablets with different mucoadhesive polymers for buccal delivery. METHODS: Prednisolone (PSL)-loaded Solid Lipid Particles (SLPs) were conventionally prepared by ultrasonication. The freeze-drying method was used to convert the SLP suspension into a solid dosage form for buccal delivery by using mucoadhesive polymers. RESULTS: All formulations showed over 80% drug release after 6h, which followed immediate and sustained release patterns depending on the SLP type. However, the different polymers in the formulations resulted in different mucoadhesion times and drug release and drug permeability profiles. HPMC 4000 showed higher drug permeation (3327 µg vs. 2589 µg after 6h) but a shorter mucoadhesion time than Carbopol (197 min vs. 361 min). In addition, surface morphology, swelling and erosion, particle size and zeta potential were also noted for the different mechanisms for buccal tablet design with different controlled release profiles. CONCLUSION: The results of this work indicate a good strategy for the selection of mucoadhesive polymers for SLP-based tablets in improving the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Double-Controlled Release of Poorly Water-Soluble Paliperidone Palmitate from Self-Assembled Albumin-Oleic Acid Nanoparticles in PLGA in situ Forming Implant.

PURPOSE: To investigate the effects of solvents on the formation of self-assembled nanonization of albumin-oleic acid conjugates (AOCs) using a solvent exchange mechanism for the construction of in situ forming implants (ISFI). METHODS: A poorly water-soluble drug, paliperidone palmitate (PPP), was chosen as the model drug. AOC was synthesized with the 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide (EDC) reaction. Dichloromethane, tetrahydrofuran, ethanol, N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone, dimethyl sulfoxide, and deionized water were selected to investigate the formation of self-assembled AOC nanoparticles (AONs). The volume ratios of organic solvents against water could determine the miscibility, injectability, and in situ nanonizing capability without aggregation. RESULTS: As the polarity of the organic solvents increased, the AONs exhibited a spherical shape, and the larger the volume of the solvent, the smaller the size of the AONs. To use AOC in ISFI for controlled release of PPP, poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) was combined with the AOC in 2 mL of N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone and water solution (1.8/0.2 ratio). The release rates of all formulations exhibited similar curve patterns overall but were more controlled in decreasing order as follows: AOC, PLGA, and AOC/PLGA for 14 days. CONCLUSION: A combined formulation of AOC and PLGA was found to effectively control the initial burst release of the drug.

Effect of pH adjustment and ratio of oppositely charged polymers on the mechanistic performance and sustained release of volatile perfume in interpolyelectrolyte complex microcapsules.

In this study, volatile perfume was encapsulated in microcapsules (MCs) via interpolyelectrolyte complexes (IPECs) of oppositely charged polymers, with high encapsulation efficiency, to be delivered in a sustained manner. Positively charged chitosan (CTS) and negatively charged Eudragit® S100 (ES100) were used as eco-friendly biopolymers. Limonene (LMN) was selected as the model perfume. First, the solution of LMN in ethyl acetate and poloxamer 407 (POX407) in acidic solution was emulsified using ultrasonication. CTS and ES100 were added in that particular order to form o/w emulsion. LMN-loaded microcapsules (LMN-MCs) were prepared by adjusting the pH and freeze-drying for solidification. The electrostatic interactions of CTS and ES100 to form IPECs were highly dependent on pH, changing in the microscopic images of emulsion droplets and zeta potential. The NH3+ group of CTS and the COO- group of ES100 caused the electrostatic interactions at a specific pH. The formation mechanism of LMN-MCs was successfully validated using instrumental analysis, charge density, and energy dispersive X-ray spectrometer (EDS) mapping. Encapsulation efficiency, loading content, and release rates of LMN-MCs varied according to the ratios of CTS and ES100, demonstrating optimal performance at a 1:1 ratio. The current LMN-MCs could provide a simple manufacturing process with high performance in terms of encapsulation efficiency (>94%), drug loading, yield and sustained release of volatile perfume for 120 h.