Surveying biomedical relation extraction: a critical examination of current datasets and the proposal of a new resource.

Natural language processing (NLP) has become an essential technique in various fields, offering a wide range of possibilities for analyzing data and developing diverse NLP tasks. In the biomedical domain, understanding the complex relationships between compounds and proteins is critical, especially in the context of signal transduction and biochemical pathways. Among these relationships, protein-protein interactions (PPIs) are of particular interest, given their potential to trigger a variety of biological reactions. To improve the ability to predict PPI events, we propose the protein event detection dataset (PEDD), which comprises 6823 abstracts, 39 488 sentences and 182 937 gene pairs. Our PEDD dataset has been utilized in the AI CUP Biomedical Paper Analysis competition, where systems are challenged to predict 12 different relation types. In this paper, we review the state-of-the-art relation extraction research and provide an overview of the PEDD's compilation process. Furthermore, we present the results of the PPI extraction competition and evaluate several language models' performances on the PEDD. This paper's outcomes will provide a valuable roadmap for future studies on protein event detection in NLP. By addressing this critical challenge, we hope to enable breakthroughs in drug discovery and enhance our understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying various diseases.

Biomedical named entity recognition and linking datasets: survey and our recent development.

Natural language processing (NLP) is widely applied in biological domains to retrieve information from publications. Systems to address numerous applications exist, such as biomedical named entity recognition (BNER), named entity normalization (NEN) and protein-protein interaction extraction (PPIE). High-quality datasets can assist the development of robust and reliable systems; however, due to the endless applications and evolving techniques, the annotations of benchmark datasets may become outdated and inappropriate. In this study, we first review commonlyused BNER datasets and their potential annotation problems such as inconsistency and low portability. Then, we introduce a revised version of the JNLPBA dataset that solves potential problems in the original and use state-of-the-art named entity recognition systems to evaluate its portability to different kinds of biomedical literature, including protein-protein interaction and biology events. Lastly, we introduce an ensembled biomedical entity dataset (EBED) by extending the revised JNLPBA dataset with PubMed Central full-text paragraphs, figure captions and patent abstracts. This EBED is a multi-task dataset that covers annotations including gene, disease and chemical entities. In total, it contains 85000 entity mentions, 25000 entity mentions with database identifiers and 5000 attribute tags. To demonstrate the usage of the EBED, we review the BNER track from the AI CUP Biomedical Paper Analysis challenge. Availability: The revised JNLPBA dataset is available at https://iasl-btm.iis.sinica.edu.tw/BNER/Content/Re vised_JNLPBA.zip. The EBED dataset is available at https://iasl-btm.iis.sinica.edu.tw/BNER/Content/AICUP _EBED_dataset.rar. Contact: Email: thtsai@g.ncu.edu.tw, Tel. 886-3-4227151 ext. 35203, Fax: 886-3-422-2681 Email: hsu@iis.sinica.edu.tw, Tel. 886-2-2788-3799 ext. 2211, Fax: 886-2-2782-4814 Supplementary information: Supplementary data are available at Briefings in Bioinformatics online.

Increased Online Aggression During COVID-19 Lockdowns: Two-Stage Study of Deep Text Mining and Difference-in-Differences Analysis.

BACKGROUND: The COVID-19 pandemic caused a critical public health crisis worldwide, and policymakers are using lockdowns to control the virus. However, there has been a noticeable increase in aggressive social behaviors that threaten social stability. Lockdown measures might negatively affect mental health and lead to an increase in aggressive emotions. Discovering the relationship between lockdown and increased aggression is crucial for formulating appropriate policies that address these adverse societal effects. We applied natural language processing (NLP) technology to internet data, so as to investigate the social and emotional impacts of lockdowns. OBJECTIVE: This research aimed to understand the relationship between lockdown and increased aggression using NLP technology to analyze the following 3 kinds of aggressive emotions: anger, offensive language, and hate speech, in spatiotemporal ranges of tweets in the United States. METHODS: We conducted a longitudinal internet study of 11,455 Twitter users by analyzing aggressive emotions in 1,281,362 tweets they posted from 2019 to 2020. We selected 3 common aggressive emotions (anger, offensive language, and hate speech) on the internet as the subject of analysis. To detect the emotions in the tweets, we trained a Bidirectional Encoder Representations from Transformers (BERT) model to analyze the percentage of aggressive tweets in every state and every week. Then, we used the difference-in-differences estimation to measure the impact of lockdown status on increasing aggressive tweets. Since most other independent factors that might affect the results, such as seasonal and regional factors, have been ruled out by time and state fixed effects, a significant result in this difference-in-differences analysis can not only indicate a concrete positive correlation but also point to a causal relationship. RESULTS: In the first 6 months of lockdown in 2020, aggression levels in all users increased compared to the same period in 2019. Notably, users under lockdown demonstrated greater levels of aggression than those not under lockdown. Our difference-in-differences estimation discovered a statistically significant positive correlation between lockdown and increased aggression (anger: P=.002, offensive language: P<.001, hate speech: P=.005). It can be inferred from such results that there exist causal relations. CONCLUSIONS: Understanding the relationship between lockdown and aggression can help policymakers address the personal and societal impacts of lockdown. Applying NLP technology and using big data on social media can provide crucial and timely information for this effort.

A context-aware approach for progression tracking of medical concepts in electronic medical records.

Electronic medical records (EMRs) for diabetic patients contain information about heart disease risk factors such as high blood pressure, cholesterol levels, and smoking status. Discovering the described risk factors and tracking their progression over time may support medical personnel in making clinical decisions, as well as facilitate data modeling and biomedical research. Such highly patient-specific knowledge is essential to driving the advancement of evidence-based practice, and can also help improve personalized medicine and care. One general approach for tracking the progression of diseases and their risk factors described in EMRs is to first recognize all temporal expressions, and then assign each of them to the nearest target medical concept. However, this method may not always provide the correct associations. In light of this, this work introduces a context-aware approach to assign the time attributes of the recognized risk factors by reconstructing contexts that contain more reliable temporal expressions. The evaluation results on the i2b2 test set demonstrate the efficacy of the proposed approach, which achieved an F-score of 0.897. To boost the approach's ability to process unstructured clinical text and to allow for the reproduction of the demonstrated results, a set of developed .NET libraries used to develop the system is available at https://sites.google.com/site/hongjiedai/projects/nttmuclinicalnet.

A resource-saving collective approach to biomedical semantic role labeling.

BACKGROUND: Biomedical semantic role labeling (BioSRL) is a natural language processing technique that identifies the semantic roles of the words or phrases in sentences describing biological processes and expresses them as predicate-argument structures (PAS's). Currently, a major problem of BioSRL is that most systems label every node in a full parse tree independently; however, some nodes always exhibit dependency. In general SRL, collective approaches based on the Markov logic network (MLN) model have been successful in dealing with this problem. However, in BioSRL such an approach has not been attempted because it would require more training data to recognize the more specialized and diverse terms found in biomedical literature, increasing training time and computational complexity. RESULTS: We first constructed a collective BioSRL system based on MLN. This system, called collective BIOSMILE (CBIOSMILE), is trained on the BioProp corpus. To reduce the resources used in BioSRL training, we employ a tree-pruning filter to remove unlikely nodes from the parse tree and four argument candidate identifiers to retain candidate nodes in the tree. Nodes not recognized by any candidate identifier are discarded. The pruned annotated parse trees are used to train a resource-saving MLN-based system, which is referred to as resource-saving collective BIOSMILE (RCBIOSMILE). Our experimental results show that our proposed CBIOSMILE system outperforms BIOSMILE, which is the top BioSRL system. Furthermore, our proposed RCBIOSMILE maintains the same level of accuracy as CBIOSMILE using 92% less memory and 57% less training time. CONCLUSIONS: This greatly improved efficiency makes RCBIOSMILE potentially suitable for training on much larger BioSRL corpora over more biomedical domains. Compared to real-world biomedical corpora, BioProp is relatively small, containing only 445 MEDLINE abstracts and 30 event triggers. It is not large enough for practical applications, such as pathway construction. We consider it of primary importance to pursue SRL training on large corpora in the future.

The overview of the BioRED (Biomedical Relation Extraction Dataset) track at BioCreative VIII.

The BioRED track at BioCreative VIII calls for a community effort to identify, semantically categorize, and highlight the novelty factor of the relationships between biomedical entities in unstructured text. Relation extraction is crucial for many biomedical natural language processing (NLP) applications, from drug discovery to custom medical solutions. The BioRED track simulates a real-world application of biomedical relationship extraction, and as such, considers multiple biomedical entity types, normalized to their specific corresponding database identifiers, as well as defines relationships between them in the documents. The challenge consisted of two subtasks: (i) in Subtask 1, participants were given the article text and human expert annotated entities, and were asked to extract the relation pairs, identify their semantic type and the novelty factor, and (ii) in Subtask 2, participants were given only the article text, and were asked to build an end-to-end system that could identify and categorize the relationships and their novelty. We received a total of 94 submissions from 14 teams worldwide. The highest F-score performances achieved for the Subtask 1 were: 77.17% for relation pair identification, 58.95% for relation type identification, 59.22% for novelty identification, and 44.55% when evaluating all of the above aspects of the comprehensive relation extraction. The highest F-score performances achieved for the Subtask 2 were: 55.84% for relation pair, 43.03% for relation type, 42.74% for novelty, and 32.75% for comprehensive relation extraction. The entire BioRED track dataset and other challenge materials are available at https://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub/lu/BC8-BioRED-track/ and https://codalab.lisn.upsaclay.fr/competitions/13377 and https://codalab.lisn.upsaclay.fr/competitions/13378. Database URL: https://ftp.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pub/lu/BC8-BioRED-track/https://codalab.lisn.upsaclay.fr/competitions/13377https://codalab.lisn.upsaclay.fr/competitions/13378.

TEMPTING system: a hybrid method of rule and machine learning for temporal relation extraction in patient discharge summaries.

Patient discharge summaries provide detailed medical information about individuals who have been hospitalized. To make a precise and legitimate assessment of the abundant data, a proper time layout of the sequence of relevant events should be compiled and used to drive a patient-specific timeline, which could further assist medical personnel in making clinical decisions. The process of identifying the chronological order of entities is called temporal relation extraction. In this paper, we propose a hybrid method to identify appropriate temporal links between a pair of entities. The method combines two approaches: one is rule-based and the other is based on the maximum entropy model. We develop an integration algorithm to fuse the results of the two approaches. All rules and the integration algorithm are formally stated so that one can easily reproduce the system and results. To optimize the system's configuration, we used the 2012 i2b2 challenge TLINK track dataset and applied threefold cross validation to the training set. Then, we evaluated its performance on the training and test datasets. The experiment results show that the proposed TEMPTING (TEMPoral relaTion extractING) system (ranked seventh) achieved an F-score of 0.563, which was at least 30% better than that of the baseline system, which randomly selects TLINK candidates from all pairs and assigns the TLINK types. The TEMPTING system using the hybrid method also outperformed the stage-based TEMPTING system. Its F-scores were 3.51% and 0.97% better than those of the stage-based system on the training set and test set, respectively.

Automatic Extraction of Medication Mentions from Tweets-Overview of the BioCreative VII Shared Task 3 Competition.

This study presents the outcomes of the shared task competition BioCreative VII (Task 3) focusing on the extraction of medication names from a Twitter user's publicly available tweets (the user's 'timeline'). In general, detecting health-related tweets is notoriously challenging for natural language processing tools. The main challenge, aside from the informality of the language used, is that people tweet about any and all topics, and most of their tweets are not related to health. Thus, finding those tweets in a user's timeline that mention specific health-related concepts such as medications requires addressing extreme imbalance. Task 3 called for detecting tweets in a user's timeline that mentions a medication name and, for each detected mention, extracting its span. The organizers made available a corpus consisting of 182 049 tweets publicly posted by 212 Twitter users with all medication mentions manually annotated. The corpus exhibits the natural distribution of positive tweets, with only 442 tweets (0.2%) mentioning a medication. This task was an opportunity for participants to evaluate methods that are robust to class imbalance beyond the simple lexical match. A total of 65 teams registered, and 16 teams submitted a system run. This study summarizes the corpus created by the organizers and the approaches taken by the participating teams for this challenge. The corpus is freely available at https://biocreative.bioinformatics.udel.edu/tasks/biocreative-vii/track-3/. The methods and the results of the competing systems are analyzed with a focus on the approaches taken for learning from class-imbalanced data.

Integration of gene normalization stages and co-reference resolution using a Markov logic network.

MOTIVATION: Gene normalization (GN) is the task of normalizing a textual gene mention to a unique gene database ID. Traditional top performing GN systems usually need to consider several constraints to make decisions in the normalization process, including filtering out false positives, or disambiguating an ambiguous gene mention, to improve system performance. However, these constraints are usually executed in several separate stages and cannot use each other's input/output interactively. In this article, we propose a novel approach that employs a Markov logic network (MLN) to model the constraints used in the GN task. Firstly, we show how various constraints can be formulated and combined in an MLN. Secondly, we are the first to apply the two main concepts of co-reference resolution-discourse salience in centering theory and transitivity-to GN models. Furthermore, to make our results more relevant to developers of information extraction applications, we adopt the instance-based precision/recall/F-measure (PRF) in addition to the article-wide PRF to assess system performance. RESULTS: Experimental results show that our system outperforms baseline and state-of-the-art systems under two evaluation schemes. Through further analysis, we have found several unexplored challenges in the GN task. CONTACT: hongjie@iis.sinica.edu.tw SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Supplementary data are available at Bioinformatics online.

Task reformulation and data-centric approach for Twitter medication name extraction.

Automatically extracting medication names from tweets is challenging in the real world. There are many tweets; however, only a small proportion mentions medications. Thus, datasets are usually highly imbalanced. Moreover, the length of tweets is very short, which makes it hard to recognize medication names from the limited context. This paper proposes a data-centric approach for extracting medications in the BioCreative VII Track 3 (Automatic Extraction of Medication Names in Tweets). Our approach formulates the sequence labeling problem as text entailment and question-answer tasks. As a result, without using the dictionary and ensemble method, our single model achieved a Strict F1 of 0.77 (the official baseline system is 0.758, and the average performance of participants is 0.696). Moreover, combining the dictionary filtering and ensemble method achieved a Strict F1 of 0.804 and had the highest performance for all participants. Furthermore, domain-specific and task-specific pretrained language models, as well as data-centric approaches, are proposed for further improvements. Database URL https://competitions.codalab.org/competitions/23925 and https://biocreative.bioinformatics.udel.edu/tasks/biocreative-vii/track-3/.

Semi-supervised learning for topographic map analysis over time: a study of bridge segmentation.

Geographical research using historical maps has progressed considerably as the digitalization of topological maps across years provides valuable data and the advancement of AI machine learning models provides powerful analytic tools. Nevertheless, analysis of historical maps based on supervised learning can be limited by the laborious manual map annotations. In this work, we propose a semi-supervised learning method that can transfer the annotation of maps across years and allow map comparison and anthropogenic studies across time. Our novel two-stage framework first performs style transfer of topographic map across years and versions, and then supervised learning can be applied on the synthesized maps with annotations. We investigate the proposed semi-supervised training with the style-transferred maps and annotations on four widely-used deep neural networks (DNN), namely U-Net, fully-convolutional network (FCN), DeepLabV3, and MobileNetV3. The best performing network of U-Net achieves [Formula: see text] and [Formula: see text] trained on style-transfer synthesized maps, which indicates that the proposed framework is capable of detecting target features (bridges) on historical maps without annotations. In a comprehensive comparison, the [Formula: see text] of U-Net trained on Contrastive Unpaired Translation (CUT) generated dataset ([Formula: see text]) achieves 57.3 % than the comparative score ([Formula: see text]) of the least valid configuration (MobileNetV3 trained on CycleGAN synthesized dataset). We also discuss the remaining challenges and future research directions.

Multi-stage gene normalization for full-text articles with context-based species filtering for dynamic dictionary entry selection.

BACKGROUND: Gene normalization (GN) is the task of identifying the unique database IDs of genes and proteins in literature. The best-known public competition of GN systems is the GN task of the BioCreative challenge, which has been held four times since 2003. The last two BioCreatives, II.5 & III, had two significant differences from earlier tasks: firstly, they provided full-length articles in addition to abstracts; and secondly, they included multiple species without providing species ID information. Full papers introduce more complex targets for GN processing, while the inclusion of multiple species vastly increases the potential size of dictionaries needed for GN. BioCreative III GN uses Threshold Average Precision at a median of k errors per query (TAP-k), a new measure closely related to the well-known average precision, but also reflecting the reliability of the score provided by each GN system. RESULTS: To use full-paper text, we employed a multi-stage GN algorithm and a ranking method which exploit information in different sections and parts of a paper. To handle the inclusion of multiple unknown species, we developed two context-based dynamic strategies to select dictionary entries related to the species that appear in the paper-section-wide and article-wide context. Our originally submitted BioCreative III system uses a static dictionary containing only the most common species entries. It already exceeds the BioCreative III average team performance by at least 24% in every evaluation. However, using our proposed dynamic dictionary strategies, we were able to further improve TAP-5, TAP-10, and TAP-20 by 16.47%, 13.57% and 6.01%, respectively in the Gold 50 test set. Our best dynamic strategy outperforms the best BioCreative III systems in TAP-10 on the Silver 50 test set and in TAP-5 on the Silver 507 set. CONCLUSIONS: Our experimental results demonstrate the superiority of our proposed dynamic dictionary selection strategies over our original static strategy and most BioCreative III participant systems. Section-wide dynamic strategy is preferred because it achieves very similar TAP-k scores to article-wide dynamic strategy but it is more efficient.

Dynamic programming re-ranking for PPI interactor and pair extraction in full-text articles.

BACKGROUND: Experimentally verified protein-protein interactions (PPIs) cannot be easily retrieved by researchers unless they are stored in PPI databases. The curation of such databases can be facilitated by employing text-mining systems to identify genes which play the interactor role in PPIs and to map these genes to unique database identifiers (interactor normalization task or INT) and then to return a list of interaction pairs for each article (interaction pair task or IPT). These two tasks are evaluated in terms of the area under curve of the interpolated precision/recall (AUC iP/R) score because the order of identifiers in the output list is important for ease of curation. RESULTS: Our INT system developed for the BioCreAtIvE II.5 INT challenge achieved a promising AUC iP/R of 43.5% by using a support vector machine (SVM)-based ranking procedure. Using our new re-ranking algorithm, we have been able to improve system performance (AUC iP/R) by 1.84%. Our experimental results also show that with the re-ranked INT results, our unsupervised IPT system can achieve a competitive AUC iP/R of 23.86%, which outperforms the best BC II.5 INT system by 1.64%. Compared to using only SVM ranked INT results, using re-ranked INT results boosts AUC iP/R by 7.84%. Statistical significance t-test results show that our INT/IPT system with re-ranking outperforms that without re-ranking by a statistically significant difference. CONCLUSIONS: In this paper, we present a new re-ranking algorithm that considers co-occurrence among identifiers in an article to improve INT and IPT ranking results. Combining the re-ranked INT results with an unsupervised approach to find associations among interactors, the proposed method can boost the IPT performance. We also implement score computation using dynamic programming, which is faster and more efficient than traditional approaches.

The gene normalization task in BioCreative III.

BACKGROUND: We report the Gene Normalization (GN) challenge in BioCreative III where participating teams were asked to return a ranked list of identifiers of the genes detected in full-text articles. For training, 32 fully and 500 partially annotated articles were prepared. A total of 507 articles were selected as the test set. Due to the high annotation cost, it was not feasible to obtain gold-standard human annotations for all test articles. Instead, we developed an Expectation Maximization (EM) algorithm approach for choosing a small number of test articles for manual annotation that were most capable of differentiating team performance. Moreover, the same algorithm was subsequently used for inferring ground truth based solely on team submissions. We report team performance on both gold standard and inferred ground truth using a newly proposed metric called Threshold Average Precision (TAP-k). RESULTS: We received a total of 37 runs from 14 different teams for the task. When evaluated using the gold-standard annotations of the 50 articles, the highest TAP-k scores were 0.3297 (k=5), 0.3538 (k=10), and 0.3535 (k=20), respectively. Higher TAP-k scores of 0.4916 (k=5, 10, 20) were observed when evaluated using the inferred ground truth over the full test set. When combining team results using machine learning, the best composite system achieved TAP-k scores of 0.3707 (k=5), 0.4311 (k=10), and 0.4477 (k=20) on the gold standard, representing improvements of 12.4%, 21.8%, and 26.6% over the best team results, respectively. CONCLUSIONS: By using full text and being species non-specific, the GN task in BioCreative III has moved closer to a real literature curation task than similar tasks in the past and presents additional challenges for the text mining community, as revealed in the overall team results. By evaluating teams using the gold standard, we show that the EM algorithm allows team submissions to be differentiated while keeping the manual annotation effort feasible. Using the inferred ground truth we show measures of comparative performance between teams. Finally, by comparing team rankings on gold standard vs. inferred ground truth, we further demonstrate that the inferred ground truth is as effective as the gold standard for detecting good team performance.

PubMed-EX: a web browser extension to enhance PubMed search with text mining features.

UNLABELLED: PubMed-EX is a browser extension that marks up PubMed search results with additional text-mining information. PubMed-EX's page mark-up, which includes section categorization and gene/disease and relation mark-up, can help researchers to quickly focus on key terms and provide additional information on them. All text processing is performed server-side, freeing up user resources. AVAILABILITY: PubMed-EX is freely available at http://bws.iis.sinica.edu.tw/PubMed-EX and http://iisr.cse.yzu.edu.tw:8000/PubMed-EX/.

BIOSMILE web search: a web application for annotating biomedical entities and relations.

BIOSMILE web search (BWS), a web-based NCBI-PubMed search application, which can analyze articles for selected biomedical verbs and give users relational information, such as subject, object, location, manner, time, etc. After receiving keyword query input, BWS retrieves matching PubMed abstracts and lists them along with snippets by order of relevancy to protein-protein interaction. Users can then select articles for further analysis, and BWS will find and mark up biomedical relations in the text. The analysis results can be viewed in the abstract text or in table form. To date, BWS has been field tested by over 30 biologists and questionnaires have shown that subjects are highly satisfied with its capabilities and usability. BWS is accessible free of charge at http://bioservices.cse.yzu.edu.tw/BWS.

HypertenGene: extracting key hypertension genes from biomedical literature with position and automatically-generated template features.

BACKGROUND: The genetic factors leading to hypertension have been extensively studied, and large numbers of research papers have been published on the subject. One of hypertension researchers' primary research tasks is to locate key hypertension-related genes in abstracts. However, gathering such information with existing tools is not easy: (1) Searching for articles often returns far too many hits to browse through. (2) The search results do not highlight the hypertension-related genes discovered in the abstract. (3) Even though some text mining services mark up gene names in the abstract, the key genes investigated in a paper are still not distinguished from other genes. To facilitate the information gathering process for hypertension researchers, one solution would be to extract the key hypertension-related genes in each abstract. Three major tasks are involved in the construction of this system: (1) gene and hypertension named entity recognition, (2) section categorization, and (3) gene-hypertension relation extraction. RESULTS: We first compare the retrieval performance achieved by individually adding template features and position features to the baseline system. Then, the combination of both is examined. We found that using position features can almost double the original AUC score (0.8140 vs.0.4936) of the baseline system. However, adding template features only results in marginal improvement (0.0197). Including both improves AUC to 0.8184, indicating that these two sets of features are complementary, and do not have overlapping effects. We then examine the performance in a different domain--diabetes, and the result shows a satisfactory AUC of 0.83. CONCLUSION: Our approach successfully exploits template features to recognize true hypertension-related gene mentions and position features to distinguish key genes from other related genes. Templates are automatically generated and checked by biologists to minimize labor costs. Our approach integrates the advantages of machine learning models and pattern matching. To the best of our knowledge, this the first systematic study of extracting hypertension-related genes and the first attempt to create a hypertension-gene relation corpus based on the GAD database. Furthermore, our paper proposes and tests novel features for extracting key hypertension genes, such as relative position, section, and template features, which could also be applied to key-gene extraction for other diseases.

The extraction of complex relationships and their conversion to biological expression language (BEL) overview of the BioCreative VI (2017) BEL track.

Knowledge of the molecular interactions of biological and chemical entities and their involvement in biological processes or clinical phenotypes is important for data interpretation. Unfortunately, this knowledge is mostly embedded in the literature in such a way that it is unavailable for automated data analysis procedures. Biological expression language (BEL) is a syntax representation allowing for the structured representation of a broad range of biological relationships. It is used in various situations to extract such knowledge and transform it into BEL networks. To support the tedious and time-intensive extraction work of curators with automated methods, we developed the BEL track within the framework of BioCreative Challenges. Within the BEL track, we provide training data and an evaluation environment to encourage the text mining community to tackle the automatic extraction of complex BEL relationships. In 2017 BioCreative VI, the 2015 BEL track was repeated with new test data. Although only minor improvements in text snippet retrieval for given statements were achieved during this second BEL task iteration, a significant increase of BEL statement extraction performance from provided sentences could be seen. The best performing system reached a 32% F-score for the extraction of complete BEL statements and with the given named entities this increased to 49%. This time, besides rule-based systems, new methods involving hierarchical sequence labeling and neural networks were applied for BEL statement extraction.

Using a Large Margin Context-Aware Convolutional Neural Network to Automatically Extract Disease-Disease Association from Literature: Comparative Analytic Study.

BACKGROUND: Research on disease-disease association (DDA), like comorbidity and complication, provides important insights into disease treatment and drug discovery, and a large body of the literature has been published in the field. However, using current search tools, it is not easy for researchers to retrieve information on the latest DDA findings. First, comorbidity and complication keywords pull up large numbers of PubMed studies. Second, disease is not highlighted in search results. Finally, DDA is not identified, as currently no disease-disease association extraction (DDAE) dataset or tools are available. OBJECTIVE: As there are no available DDAE datasets or tools, this study aimed to develop (1) a DDAE dataset and (2) a neural network model for extracting DDA from the literature. METHODS: In this study, we formulated DDAE as a supervised machine learning classification problem. To develop the system, we first built a DDAE dataset. We then employed two machine learning models, support vector machine and convolutional neural network, to extract DDA. Furthermore, we evaluated the effect of using the output layer as features of the support vector machine-based model. Finally, we implemented large margin context-aware convolutional neural network architecture to integrate context features and convolutional neural networks through the large margin function. RESULTS: Our DDAE dataset consisted of 521 PubMed abstracts. Experiment results showed that the support vector machine-based approach achieved an F1 measure of 80.32%, which is higher than the convolutional neural network-based approach (73.32%). Using the output layer of convolutional neural network as a feature for the support vector machine does not further improve the performance of support vector machine. However, our large margin context-aware-convolutional neural network achieved the highest F1 measure of 84.18% and demonstrated that combining the hinge loss function of support vector machine with a convolutional neural network into a single neural network architecture outperforms other approaches. CONCLUSIONS: To facilitate the development of text-mining research for DDAE, we developed the first publicly available DDAE dataset consisting of disease mentions, Medical Subject Heading IDs, and relation annotations. We developed different conventional machine learning models and neural network architectures and evaluated their effects on our DDAE dataset. To further improve DDAE performance, we propose an large margin context-aware-convolutional neural network model for DDAE that outperforms other approaches.

Semi-automatic conversion of BioProp semantic annotation to PASBio annotation.

BACKGROUND: Semantic role labeling (SRL) is an important text analysis technique. In SRL, sentences are represented by one or more predicate-argument structures (PAS). Each PAS is composed of a predicate (verb) and several arguments (noun phrases, adverbial phrases, etc.) with different semantic roles, including main arguments (agent or patient) as well as adjunct arguments (time, manner, or location). PropBank is the most widely used PAS corpus and annotation format in the newswire domain. In the biomedical field, however, more detailed and restrictive PAS annotation formats such as PASBio are popular. Unfortunately, due to the lack of an annotated PASBio corpus, no publicly available machine-learning (ML) based SRL systems based on PASBio have been developed. In previous work, we constructed a biomedical corpus based on the PropBank standard called BioProp, on which we developed an ML-based SRL system, BIOSMILE. In this paper, we aim to build a system to convert BIOSMILE's BioProp annotation output to PASBio annotation. Our system consists of BIOSMILE in combination with a BioProp-PASBio rule-based converter, and an additional semi-automatic rule generator. RESULTS: Our first experiment evaluated our rule-based converter's performance independently from BIOSMILE performance. The converter achieved an F-score of 85.29%. The second experiment evaluated combined system (BIOSMILE + rule-based converter). The system achieved an F-score of 69.08% for PASBio's 29 verbs. CONCLUSION: Our approach allows PAS conversion between BioProp and PASBio annotation using BIOSMILE alongside our newly developed semi-automatic rule generator and rule-based converter. Our system can match the performance of other state-of-the-art domain-specific ML-based SRL systems and can be easily customized for PASBio application development.