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Responsibility is an essential part of our social life. Although responsibility is an abstract concept, it can be represented with concrete ideas through conceptual metaphor. Expressions like "carry a lot of responsibility," "shoulder the responsibility" shows that responsibility can be understood as a load on shoulder that one has to carry. Accordingly, this study tests the question that does putting a burden on one's shoulder makes him/her more responsible or not. In order to investigate this, on each trial, we asked participants to decide between risky situations that vary in magnitude, probability of win/lose, and the ambiguity level in two conditions: "self" and 'group." Each subject wears a vest with a load on each shoulder in half of the trials. As expected, Most of participants choose to defer on the group trials more than on the self-trials. This difference between numbers of deferring in group and self conditions is called responsibility aversion. Results indicate that responsibility aversion scores are lower (responsibility-taking was greater) in the state of wearing the vest than in the form of not wearing the vest significantly. We provided evidence that the abstract concept of responsibility is linked to bodily experiences of feeling load on the shoulder consistent with an embodied cognition theory.
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PURPOSE: This systematic review aimed to evaluate the effect of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation on heart rate variability and baroreflex sensitivity in healthy populations. METHOD: PubMed, Scopus, the Cochrane Library, Embase, and Web of Science were systematically searched for controlled trials that examined the effects of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation on heart rate variability parameters and baroreflex sensitivity in apparently healthy individuals. Two independent researchers screened the search results, extracted the data, and evaluated the quality of the included studies. RESULTS: From 2458 screened studies, 21 were included. Compared with baseline measures or the comparison group, significant changes in the standard deviation of NN intervals, the root mean square of successive RR intervals, the proportion of consecutive RR intervals that differ by more than 50 ms, high-frequency power, low-frequency to high-frequency ratio, and low-frequency power were found in 86%, 75%, 69%, 47%, 36%, and 25% of the studies evaluating the effects of transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation on these indices, respectively. Baroreflex sensitivity was evaluated in six studies, of which a significant change was detected in only one. Some studies have shown that the worse the basic autonomic function, the better the response to transcutaneous auricular vagus nerve stimulation. CONCLUSION: The results were mixed, which may be mainly attributable to the heterogeneity of the study designs and stimulation delivery dosages. Thus, future studies with comparable designs are required to determine the optimal stimulation parameters and clarify the significance of autonomic indices as a reliable marker of neuromodulation responsiveness.
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Estimulación del Nervio Vago , Humanos , Estimulación del Nervio Vago/métodos , Frecuencia Cardíaca/fisiología , Barorreflejo/fisiología , Voluntarios Sanos , Nervio Vago/fisiologíaRESUMEN
ABSTARCT: An ensemble of neurons can provide a dynamic representation of external stimuli, ongoing processes, or upcoming actions. This dynamic representation could be achieved by changes in the activity of individual neurons and/or their interactions. To investigate these possibilities, we simultaneously recorded from ensembles of prefrontal neurons in non-human primates during a memory-guided saccade task. Using both decoding and encoding methods, we examined changes in the information content of individual neurons and that of ensembles between visual encoding and saccadic target selection. We found that individual neurons maintained their limited spatial sensitivity between these cognitive states, whereas the ensemble selectively improved its encoding of spatial locations far from the neurons' preferred locations. This population-level "encoding expansion" was not due to the ceiling effect at the preferred locations and was accompanied by selective changes in noise correlations for non-preferred locations. Moreover, the encoding expansion was observed for ensembles of different types of neurons and could not be explained by shifts in the preferred location of individual neurons. Our results demonstrate that the representation of space by neuronal ensembles is dynamically enhanced prior to saccades, and this enhancement occurs alongside changes in noise correlations more than changes in the activity of individual neurons.
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Neuronas/fisiología , Ruido , Corteza Prefrontal/citología , Movimientos Sacádicos/fisiología , Potenciales de Acción/fisiología , Animales , Atención , Análisis Discriminante , Macaca mulatta , Masculino , Estimulación Luminosa , Procesamiento de Señales Asistido por Computador , Estadísticas no Paramétricas , Máquina de Vectores de SoporteRESUMEN
Object categories are recognized at multiple levels of hierarchical abstractions. Psychophysical studies have shown a more rapid perceptual access to the mid-level category information (e.g., human faces) than the higher (superordinate; e.g., animal) or the lower (subordinate; e.g., face identity) level. Mid-level category members share many features, whereas few features are shared among members of different mid-level categories. To understand better the neural basis of expedited access to mid-level category information, we examined neural responses of the inferior temporal (IT) cortex of macaque monkeys viewing a large number of object images. We found an earlier representation of mid-level categories in the IT population and single-unit responses compared with superordinate- and subordinate-level categories. The short-latency representation of mid-level category information shows that visual cortex first divides the category shape space at its sharpest boundaries, defined by high/low within/between-group similarity. This short-latency, mid-level category boundary map may be a prerequisite for representation of other categories at more global and finer scales.
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Mapeo Encefálico , Neuronas/fisiología , Dinámicas no Lineales , Reconocimiento Visual de Modelos/fisiología , Lóbulo Temporal/citología , Animales , Simulación por Computador , Macaca , Masculino , Modelos Neurológicos , Estimulación Luminosa , Análisis de Componente Principal , Curva ROC , Tiempo de Reacción , Máquina de Vectores de Soporte , Lóbulo Temporal/fisiología , Factores de Tiempo , Vías Visuales/fisiologíaRESUMEN
One of the characteristics of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is atypical sensory processing and perceptual integration. Here, we used an object naming task to test the significance of deletion of vertices versus extended contours (edges) in naming fragmented line drawings of natural objects in typically developing and ASD children. The basic components of a fragmented image in perceptual closure need to be integrated to make a coherent visual perception. When vertices were missing and only edges were visible, typically developing and ASD subjects performed similarly. But typically developing children performed significantly better than ASD children when only vertex information was visible. These results indicate impairment of binding vertices but not edges to form a holistic representation of an object in children with ASD.
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Trastorno del Espectro Autista/fisiopatología , Cognición/fisiología , Reconocimiento Visual de Modelos/fisiología , Percepción de Cercanía/fisiología , Percepción Visual/fisiología , Niño , Femenino , Humanos , MasculinoRESUMEN
The circuitry and pathways in the brains of humans and other species have long inspired researchers and system designers to develop accurate and efficient systems capable of solving real-world problems and responding in real-time. We propose the Syllable-Specific Temporal Encoding (SSTE) to learn vocal sequences in a reservoir of Izhikevich neurons, by forming associations between exclusive input activities and their corresponding syllables in the sequence. Our model converts the audio signals to cochleograms using the CAR-FAC model to simulate a brain-like auditory learning and memorization process. The reservoir is trained using a hardware-friendly approach to FORCE learning. Reservoir computing could yield associative memory dynamics with far less computational complexity compared to RNNs. The SSTE-based learning enables competent accuracy and stable recall of spatiotemporal sequences with fewer reservoir inputs compared with existing encodings in the literature for similar purpose, offering resource savings. The encoding points to syllable onsets and allows recalling from a desired point in the sequence, making it particularly suitable for recalling subsets of long vocal sequences. The SSTE demonstrates the capability of learning new signals without forgetting previously memorized sequences and displays robustness against occasional noise, a characteristic of real-world scenarios. The components of this model are configured to improve resource consumption and computational intensity, addressing some of the cost-efficiency issues that might arise in future implementations aiming for compactness and real-time, low-power operation. Overall, this model proposes a brain-inspired pattern generation network for vocal sequences that can be extended with other bio-inspired computations to explore their potentials for brain-like auditory perception. Future designs could inspire from this model to implement embedded devices that learn vocal sequences and recall them as needed in real-time. Such systems could acquire language and speech, operate as artificial assistants, and transcribe text to speech, in the presence of natural noise and corruption on audio data.
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Memoria , Redes Neurales de la Computación , Humanos , Memoria/fisiología , Percepción Auditiva/fisiología , Neuronas/fisiología , Aprendizaje/fisiología , Modelos NeurológicosRESUMEN
BACKGROUND: Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a significant cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. With survivors often exhibiting degrees of function loss, a significant burden is exerted on their caregivers. The purpose of this study was to explore the predictive factors of caregiver burden among caregivers of patients with TBI. METHODS: Sixty-eight family members of individuals with a TBI who had been admitted to three hospitals were assessed in terms of caregiver burden using the Zarit Burden Interview. The association of caregiver burden with patients' baseline cognitive function according to the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA) test, as well as caregivers' sociodemographic characteristics, were evaluated using multiple regression analysis. RESULTS: Based on the multiple regression model, the MoCA score of the patients (std ß=-0.442, p < 0.001), duration of caregiving (std ß = 0.228, p = 0.044), and higher education of the caregivers (std ß = 0.229, p = 0.038) were significant predictors of caregiver burden. CONCLUSION: Overall, our findings highlight the importance of taking caregivers' psychosocial needs into account. Long-term caregivers of TBI patients with cognitive impairment should be viewed as vulnerable individuals who could benefit from psychosocial intervention programs, to improve their well-being and enabling them to enrich their care of the TBI patient.
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Lesiones Traumáticas del Encéfalo , Cuidadores , Humanos , Cuidadores/psicología , Cognición , Análisis de Regresión , FamiliaRESUMEN
Emergence of deep neural networks (DNNs) has raised enormous attention towards artificial neural networks (ANNs) once again. They have become the state-of-the-art models and have won different machine learning challenges. Although these networks are inspired by the brain, they lack biological plausibility, and they have structural differences compared to the brain. Spiking neural networks (SNNs) have been around for a long time, and they have been investigated to understand the dynamics of the brain. However, their application in real-world and complicated machine learning tasks were limited. Recently, they have shown great potential in solving such tasks. Due to their energy efficiency and temporal dynamics there are many promises in their future development. In this work, we reviewed the structures and performances of SNNs on image classification tasks. The comparisons illustrate that these networks show great capabilities for more complicated problems. Furthermore, the simple learning rules developed for SNNs, such as STDP and R-STDP, can be a potential alternative to replace the backpropagation algorithm used in DNNs.â¢Different building blocks of spiking neural networks are explained in this work.â¢Developed models for SNNs are introduced based on their characteristics and building blocks.
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Medical machine learning frameworks have received much attention in recent years. The recent COVID-19 pandemic was also accompanied by a surge in proposed machine learning algorithms for tasks such as diagnosis and mortality prognosis. Machine learning frameworks can be helpful medical assistants by extracting data patterns that are otherwise hard to detect by humans. Efficient feature engineering and dimensionality reduction are major challenges in most medical machine learning frameworks. Autoencoders are novel unsupervised tools that can perform data-driven dimensionality reduction with minimum prior assumptions. This study, in a novel approach, investigated the predictive power of latent representations obtained from a hybrid autoencoder (HAE) framework combining variational autoencoder (VAE) characteristics with mean squared error (MSE) and triplet loss for forecasting COVID-19 patients with high mortality risk in a retrospective framework. Electronic laboratory and clinical data of 1474 patients were used in the study. Logistic regression with elastic net regularization (EN) and random forest (RF) models were used as final classifiers. Moreover, we also investigated the contribution of utilized features towards latent representations via mutual information analysis. HAE Latent representations model achieved decent performance with an area under ROC curve of 0.921 (±0.027) and 0.910 (±0.036) with EN and RF predictors, respectively, over the hold-out data in comparison with the raw (AUC EN: 0.913 (±0.022); RF: 0.903 (±0.020)) models. The study aims to provide an interpretable feature engineering framework for the medical environment with the potential to integrate imaging data for efficient feature engineering in rapid triage and other clinical predictive models.
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COVID-19 , Pandemias , Humanos , Estudios Retrospectivos , Pronóstico , Aprendizaje AutomáticoRESUMEN
The use of deep neural networks for electroencephalogram (EEG) classification has rapidly progressed and gained popularity in recent years, but automatic feature extraction from EEG signals remains a challenging task. The classification of neuropsychiatric disorders demands the extraction of neuro-markers for use in automated EEG classification. Numerous advanced deep learning algorithms can be used for this purpose. In this article, we present a comprehensive review of the main factors and parameters that affect the performance of deep neural networks in classifying different neuropsychiatric disorders using EEG signals. We also analyze the EEG features used for improving classification performance. Our analysis includes 82 scientific journal papers that applied deep neural networks for subject-wise classification based on EEG signals. We extracted information on the EEG dataset and types of disorders, deep neural network structures, performance, and hyperparameters. The results show that most studies have focused on clinical classification, achieving an average accuracy of 91.83 ± 7.34, with convolutional neural networks (CNNs) being the most frequently used network architecture and resting-state EEG signals being the most commonly used data type. Additionally, the review reveals that depression (N = 18), Alzheimer's (N = 11), and schizophrenia (N = 11) were studied more frequently than other types of neuropsychiatric disorders. Our review provides insight into the performance of deep neural networks in EEG classification and highlights the importance of EEG feature extraction in improving classification accuracy. By identifying the main factors and parameters that affect deep neural network performance in EEG classification, our review can guide future research in this area. We hope that our findings will encourage further exploration of deep learning methods for EEG classification and contribute to the development of more accurate and effective methods for diagnosing and monitoring neuropsychiatric disorders using EEG signals.
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Algoritmos , Redes Neurales de la Computación , Humanos , Electroencefalografía/métodosRESUMEN
Ablation surgeries are utilized to treat certain brain disorders. Recently, these surgeries have become more prevalent using techniques such as magnetic resonance guided focused ultrasound (MRgFUS) ablation and Gamma knife thalamotomy (GKT). However, as the thalamus plays a critical role in cognitive functions, the potential impact of these surgeries on functional connectivity and cognition is a matter of concern. Various approaches have been developed to locate the target for ablation and also investigate changes in functional connectivity before and after surgery. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and electroencephalogram (EEG) are widely used methods for assessing changes in functional connectivity and activity in clinical research. In this Review, we summarize the use of fMRI and EEG in thalamotomy surgeries. Our analysis shows that thalamotomy surgery can result in changes in functional connectivity in motor-related, visuomotor, and default-mode networks, as detected by fMRI. EEG data also indicate a reduction in over-activities observed in the preoperative state.
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Context remarkably affects learning behavior by adjusting option values according to the distribution of available options. Displaying counterfactual outcomes, the outcomes of the unchosen option alongside the chosen one (i.e., providing complete feedback), would increase the contextual effect by inducing participants to compare the two outcomes during learning. However, when the context only consists of the juxtaposition of several options and there is no such explicit counterfactual factor (i.e., only partial feedback is provided), it is not clear whether and how the contextual effect emerges. In this research, we employ Partial and Complete feedback paradigms in which options are associated with different reward distributions. Our modeling analysis shows that the model that uses the outcome of the chosen option for updating the values of both chosen and unchosen options in opposing directions can better account for the behavioral data. This is also in line with the diffusive effect of dopamine on the striatum. Furthermore, our data show that the contextual effect is not limited to probabilistic rewards, but also extends to magnitude rewards. These results suggest that by extending the counterfactual concept to include the effect of the chosen outcome on the unchosen option, we can better explain why there is a contextual effect in situations in which there is no extra information about the unchosen outcome.
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Information is personally useless if its beholder cannot individually benefit from it further unless she shares it with those who can exploit that information to increase their mutual outcome. We study sharing such information anonymously in a non-strategic and non-competitive setting, where selfish and cooperative motives align. Although sharing information was cost-free and resulted in expected mutual payoff, almost all subjects showed some levels of hesitancy toward sharing information, and it was more severe in the introverts. According to our mechanistic model, this irrationality could arise because of the excessive subjective value of personally useless information and low other-regarding motives, that necessitated over-attainable personal benefit to drive sharing. Interestingly, other-regarding element correlated with the subjects' belief about how others are cooperative in general. In addition, sensitivity to the value of information correlated with their extraversion level. The results open a new window towards understanding inefficient motives that deprive people of collective benefit.
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Motivación , Personalidad , Femenino , HumanosRESUMEN
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative brain disorder associated with motor and nonmotor symptoms. Exaggerated beta band (15-30 Hz) neuronal oscillations are widely observed in corticobasal ganglia (BG) circuits during parkinsonism. Abnormal beta oscillations have been linked to motor symptoms of PD, but their exact relationship is poorly understood. Nevertheless, reduction of beta oscillations can induce therapeutic effects in PD patients. While it is widely believed that the external globus pallidus (GPe) and subthalamic nucleus (STN) are jointly responsible for abnormal rhythmogenesis in the parkinsonian BG, the role of other cortico-BG circuits cannot be ignored. To shed light on the origin of abnormal beta oscillations in PD, here we review changes of neuronal activity observed in experimental PD models and discuss how the cortex and different BG nuclei cooperate to generate and stabilize abnormal beta oscillations during parkinsonism. This may provide further insights into the complex relationship between abnormal beta oscillations and motor dysfunction in PD, which is crucial for potential target-specific therapeutic interventions in PD patients.
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Parkinson's disease (PD) is a multi-systemic neurodegenerative brain disorder. Motor symptoms of PD are linked to the significant dopamine (DA) loss in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNc) followed by basal ganglia (BG) circuit dysfunction. Increasing experimental and computational evidence indicates that (synaptic) plasticity plays a key role in the emergence of PD-related pathological changes following DA loss. Spike-timing-dependent plasticity (STDP) mediated by DA provides a mechanistic model for synaptic plasticity to modify synaptic connections within the BG according to the neuronal activity. To shed light on how DA-mediated STDP can shape neuronal activity and synaptic connectivity in the PD condition, we reviewed experimental and computational findings addressing the modulatory effect of DA on STDP as well as other plasticity mechanisms and discussed their potential role in PD pathophysiology and related network dynamics and connectivity. In particular, reshaping of STDP profiles together with other plasticity-mediated processes following DA loss may abnormally modify synaptic connections in competing pathways of the BG. The cascade of plasticity-induced maladaptive or compensatory changes can impair the excitation-inhibition balance towards the BG output nuclei, leading to the emergence of pathological activity-connectivity patterns in PD. Pre-clinical, clinical as well as computational studies reviewed here provide an understanding of the impact of synaptic plasticity and other plasticity mechanisms on PD pathophysiology, especially PD-related network activity and connectivity, after DA loss. This review may provide further insights into the abnormal structure-function relationship within the BG contributing to the emergence of pathological states in PD. Specifically, this review is intended to provide detailed information for the development of computational network models for PD, serving as testbeds for the development and optimization of invasive and non-invasive brain stimulation techniques. Computationally derived hypotheses may accelerate the development of therapeutic stimulation techniques and potentially reduce the number of related animal experiments.
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Rapid categorization of visual objects is critical for comprehending our complex visual world. The role of individual cortical neurons and neural populations in categorizing visual objects during passive vision has previously been studied. However, it is unclear whether and how perceptually guided behaviors affect the encoding of stimulus categories by neural population activity in the higher visual cortex. Here we studied the activity of the inferior temporal (IT) cortical neurons in macaque monkeys during both passive viewing and categorization of ambiguous body and object images. We found enhanced category information in the IT neural population activity during the correct, but not wrong, trials of the categorization task compared to the passive task. This encoding enhancement was task difficulty dependent with progressively larger values in trials with more ambiguous stimuli. Enhancement of IT neural population information for behaviorally relevant stimulus features suggests IT neural networks' involvement in perceptual decision-making behavior.
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Lóbulo Temporal , Corteza Visual , Animales , Macaca , Neuronas/fisiología , Estimulación Luminosa/métodos , Lóbulo Temporal/fisiologíaRESUMEN
In recent years, the application of virtual reality (VR) for therapeutic purposes has escalated dramatically. Favorable properties of VR for engaging patients with autism, in particular, have motivated an enormous body of investigations targeting autism-related disabilities with this technology. This study aims to provide a comprehensive meta-analysis for evaluating the effectiveness of VR on the rehabilitation and training of individuals diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder. Accordingly, we conducted a systematic search of related databases and, after screening for inclusion criteria, reviewed 33 studies for more detailed analysis. Results revealed that individuals undergoing VR training have remarkable improvements with a relatively large effect size with Hedges g of 0.74. Furthermore, the results of the analysis of different skills indicated diverse effectiveness. The strongest effect was observed for daily living skills (g = 1.15). This effect was moderate for other skills: g = 0.45 for cognitive skills, g = 0.46 for emotion regulation and recognition skills, and g = 0.69 for social and communication skills. Moreover, five studies that had used augmented reality also showed promising efficacy (g = 0.92) that calls for more research on this tool. In conclusion, the application of VR-based settings in clinical practice is highly encouraged, although their standardization and customization need more research.
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Mate preference in short-term relationships and long-term ones may depend on many physical, psychological, and socio-cultural factors. In this study, 178 students (81 females) in sports and 153 engineering students (64 females) answered the systemizing quotient (SQ) and empathizing quotient (EQ) questionnaires and had their digit ratio measured. They rated their preferred mate on 12 black-line drawing body figures varying in body mass index (BMI) and waist to hip ratio (WHR) for short-term and long-term relationships. Men relative to women preferred lower WHR and BMI for mate selection for both short-term and long-term relationships. BMI and WHR preference in men is independent of each other, but has a negative correlation in women. For men, digit ratio was inversely associated with BMI (p = 0.039, B = - 0.154) preference in a short-term relationship, and EQ was inversely associated with WHR preference in a long-term relationship (p = 0.045, B = - 0.164). Furthermore, men and women in sports, compared to engineering students, preferred higher (p = 0.009, B = 0.201) and lower BMI (p = 0.034, B = - 0.182) for short-term relationships, respectively. Women were more consistent in their preferences for short-term and long-term relationships relative to men. Both biological factors and social/experiential factors contribute to mate preferences in men while in women, mostly social/experiential factors contribute to them.
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Parejas Sexuales , Adulto , Índice de Masa Corporal , Ratios Digitales , Femenino , Humanos , Irán , Masculino , Matrimonio , Relación Cintura-Cadera , Adulto JovenRESUMEN
RATIONALE: Brain catecholamines have long been implicated in reinforcement learning, exemplified by catecholamine drug and genetic effects on probabilistic reversal learning. However, the mechanisms underlying such effects are unclear. OBJECTIVES AND METHODS: Here we investigated effects of an acute catecholamine challenge with methylphenidate (20 mg, oral) on a novel probabilistic reversal learning paradigm in a within-subject, double-blind randomised design. The paradigm was designed to disentangle effects on punishment avoidance from effects on reward perseveration. Given the known large individual variability in methylphenidate's effects, we stratified our effects by working memory capacity and trait impulsivity, putatively modulating the effects of methylphenidate, in a large sample (n = 102) of healthy volunteers. RESULTS: Contrary to our prediction, methylphenidate did not alter performance in the reversal phase of the task. Our key finding is that methylphenidate altered learning of choice-outcome contingencies in a manner that depended on individual variability in working memory span. Specifically, methylphenidate improved performance by adaptively reducing the effective learning rate in participants with higher working memory capacity. CONCLUSIONS: This finding emphasises the important role of working memory in reinforcement learning, as reported in influential recent computational modelling and behavioural work, and highlights the dependence of this interplay on catecholaminergic function.
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Metilfenidato , Humanos , Memoria a Corto Plazo , Metilfenidato/farmacología , Refuerzo en Psicología , Aprendizaje Inverso , RecompensaRESUMEN
Neuromodulators modify intrinsic characteristics of the nervous system in order to reconfigure the functional properties of neural circuits. This reconfiguration is crucial for the flexibility of the nervous system to respond on an input-modulated basis. Such a functional rearrangement is realized by modification of intrinsic properties of the neural circuits including synaptic interactions. Dopamine is an important neuromodulator involved in motivation and stimulus-reward learning process, and adjusts synaptic dynamics in multiple time scales through different pathways. The modification of synaptic plasticity by dopamine underlies the change in synaptic transmission and integration mechanisms, which affects intrinsic properties of the neural system including membrane excitability, probability of neurotransmitters release, receptors' response to neurotransmitters, protein trafficking, and gene transcription. Dopamine also plays a central role in behavioral control, whereas its malfunction can cause cognitive disorders. Impaired dopamine signaling is implicated in several neuropsychiatric disorders such as Parkinson's disease, drug addiction, schizophrenia, attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder and Tourette's syndrome. Therefore, dopamine plays a crucial role in the nervous system, where its proper modulation of neural circuits may enhance plasticity-related procedures, but disturbances in dopamine signaling might be involved in numerous neuropsychiatric disorders. In recent years, several computational models are proposed to formulate the involvement of dopamine in synaptic plasticity or neuropsychiatric disorders and address their connection based on the experimental findings.